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CHAPTER 1
"No People are More Determined for a Civil War"
General Thomas Gage was familiar with the colonials. An aristocrat by birth, Gage served in the French and Indian War and commanded all British forces in America since 1763. While serving in this post in New York City, Gage met his wife Margaret Kemble of New Jersey. Of all the British military leaders, Gage was the most experienced in working with the colonies. He was in England when news of the Boston Tea Party reached London, and he was called to London to discuss the situation and gave his advice to the King and the Prime Minister, Lord North.
The reaction in London was strong and swift. Too many times the colonies pushed back on British authority. Now they destroyed private property and committed an overt illegal act. Parliament passed a series of laws called the Coercive Acts. The intent was to punish Massachusetts and set a precedent of the authority of Parliament. When pressed on what these laws would incite in the colonies, Lord North said: "Whatever may be the consequences, we must risk something; if we do not, all is over."
The Coercive Acts included first, the closing of the Port of Boston until the damaged tea was paid for and the King believed that order was restored in the colony. This punished everyone in Boston, not just those responsible for the destruction of the tea. It had a direct economic impact on Boston as the city made its living off of its docks and associated trades. The second act canceled the Massachusetts Bay colonial charter and replaced it with a stricter British government role. The upper house of the state legislature would now be appointed, where before it was an elected body. This act also limited the popular town meetings in Massachusetts to one meeting a year per town. The third part of the Coercive Acts called for any trials against royal officials to be held in Great Britain, not Massachusetts. Colonists believed this would shelter royal officials from proper justice. Royal authorities believed that trials like the one after the Boston Massacre were skewed heavily against them (even though those soldiers were successfully defended). Finally, the last act dealt with all the American colonies. It gave royal officials in the colonies authority to quarter British troops in buildings if the colonial government did not provide suitable housing. Typically, this meant large civic buildings and uninhabited buildings could be put into service for quartering troops. Though many feared this would lead to British soldiers being forced into private homes, at the time of 1774 that was not the case.
Many in Boston and — for that matter — across the American colonies, believed Boston should pay for the destroyed tea. But even after that gesture was accomplished, it had little effect on new British policies toward Massachusetts. Great Britain insisted on making an example of Boston — and ensuring all of the colonies were aware.
Gage, with intimate knowledge of how Parliament and the King wanted to deal with the colonies, as well as his direct connection to the colonies, was sent to Massachusetts to assume the governorship. He arrived in Boston in May 1774 to a very unheroic welcome. Though he was given the typical honors of a new governor, it was clear that his role in administering the Coercive Acts (or, as the colonists called them, the Intolerable Acts) diminished his once-popular stature that he had held in the colonies.
Outgoing governor Thomas Hutchinson was shocked about his removal. He returned to England with a belief that he would return to the colonies vindicated. Ineffective since the Stamp Act crisis, Hutchinson was loved by neither the colonists nor the British. Both saw him as too favorable to the other side, so in June he sailed to England to defend his record. Unknown to him at the time, he would never return to the American colonies.
Gage did not come alone to Boston. He arrived with four new British regiments. British soldiers had come and gone since the Stamp Act crisis, and some soldiers remained on Castle William Island. But these new arrivals demonstrated the King's intentions to enforce his laws. Gage was not just the governor of Massachusetts, but he kept his post as the commander of all British troops in North America as well. As he began to consolidate his forces in Boston, he gathered nearly 4,500 men in 13 regiments in Boston by the end of 1774. Gage also received two more ships to enforce the closing of the Boston port. This increased the British naval strength up to seven ships. For a city that was surrounded by and depended on the water, the presence of the navy was a sure way to prove British might.
The Boston that greeted Gage was a city not new to turmoil. For over many years, the port city of 15,000 people was an epicenter of opposition to British policies. Formed in Boston to confront the Stamp Act, the Sons of Liberty served as an underground opposition group. Using an elm tree near the Boston Common as their rallying point, the men openly protested Royal authority as well as planned clandestine forays and propaganda. The tree served as a symbol to the colonial Whigs, not yet calling themselves "Patriots," and became a symbol of American colonial opposition. The Sons of Liberty gave rise to the Patriot leaders of 1774 — men like Paul Revere, Dr. Joseph Warren, Samuel Adams, and John Hancock. These men, with varying upbringings, education, and careers found common ground in opposing what they felt were British incursions into their liberties and right to self-rule.
The Coercive Acts were different than previous British acts that caused discontent in Massachusetts. This time the acts directly repealed how the colonists ruled themselves, which was rooted in the Massachusetts charter of 1691. This did not just impact those in Boston and coastal cities, but everyone in the colony. From the countryside around Boston, to the western end of the colony, local towns created committees of safety and began to not only use political and economic ways to oppose British policies, but also began to arm themselves. As Gage wrote: "Affairs here are worse than even in the Time of the Stamp Act, I don't mean in Boston, for throughout the Country. The New England Provinces, except part of New Hampshire, are I may say in Arms."
As word reached the other colonies, the response was mixed. Most colonists believed Bostonians should pay for the ruined tea, but they were also overwhelmingly shocked by the harshness of the Coercive Acts. Support from across the 13 colonies began to pour into Boston. Using an already established "Committee of Correspondence" network created in the early 1770s, colonial leaders began to discuss a proper reaction. Boycotts on imports of British goods and tea especially were accepted broadly. But most importantly, 12 colonies (Georgia abstained) sent representatives to a "Continental Congress" in Philadelphia in September 1774. Unlike the previous Stamp Act Congress, the First Continental Congress was attended by the majority of American colonies. The Congress encouraged boycotts and also petitioned the King and Parliament to rescind the Coercive Acts. In response to their planned attendance, Governor Gage dissolved the Massachusetts Provincial Assembly before the Continental Congress met and called for new elections. This did not deter them from sending representatives (John Adams, Samuel Adams, Thomas Cushing, and Robert Treat Paine) to Philadelphia.
Back in Massachusetts, Gage became wearier of his situation and the possibility of open conflict with colonists. He was active in paying informants and gaining information from local Tories (those loyal to the British government). These sources informed Gage that the people of the countryside were beginning to arm themselves. In an effort to deny them use of the official Royal arms and powder stored across the colony, he began to collect these government-owned supplies. In colonial America, most men served in the local militia. Local towns had powder magazines to store the powder that would be used for training the militia or if the militia was called to defend a portion of the colony. Many of these powder magazines also stored a portion of gunpowder that belonged to the colonial government — the King's powder.
One such powder magazine that stored a large quantity of British gunpowder was in nearby Charlestown, now known as Somerville. This powder magazine was the largest in the colony. William Brattle, the commander of the Middlesex County militia and a Royal appointee, notified Gage that he believed the local militia were making plans to steal the Royal gunpowder. Gage moved quickly; he ordered the Middlesex County sheriff to secure the keys. Then early on the morning of September 1, nearly 300 British Regulars made their way to the powder house and removed all of the gunpowder that rightfully belonged to the governor and his agents. By that afternoon, the British troops, powder, and two cannon were in Boston at Castle William (a fort on an island in Boston Harbor).
Word spread quickly that the British came and stole the powder and, in the process, had shot and killed colonials. Now Boston was on fire, and the British navy was bombarding the city. All of this of course was not true, but the word spread like wildfire just the same. Misinformation abounded, and now thousands of locals and militia were gathering in Cambridge looking for revenge. Many loyal to the colonial government were forced to flee to Boston for protection. As time went on, it was evident that the rumors of a battle and Boston burning were untrue. The incident, however, showed how quickly the countryside could mobilize against the governor.
Gage, somewhat shaken by the event, began to concentrate his military strength in the city of Boston and fortified the city against a possible attack. He sent word to England that he needed more men to enforce the Coercive Acts. The "Powder Alarm" proved that, within a day, thousands of armed colonials could assemble. The message he sent London shocked the King: "If you think ten thousand men sufficient, send twenty; if one million is thought enough, give two."
Community leaders in Massachusetts began to officially lay out their opposition to the Coercive Acts. One of the most significant were the Suffolk County Resolves. These were some of the first and most direct resolves that laid out how to openly oppose the British government. They called for the boycott of British imports; refused payments of taxes; called for the creation of a colonial militia; advocated for a colonial government free of Royal authority; called for open disobedience of the closing of the Boston Port; and demanded resignations of all new government appointments. The resolves called for all these measures until the Coercive Acts were repealed. Dr. Joseph Warren took the lead in pushing for the resolves, and Paul Revere personally delivered a copy to the First Continental Congress meeting in Philadelphia.
On September 21, colonial Patriot leaders met in Worcester, Massachusetts, and proposed creating a system of express riders that would travel from town to town spreading accurate information. These riders could also spread an alarm if there was a British threat. Additionally, they created a new elite militia unit called the "minute men." These units were recruited from the militias, but were trained more often and were to be ready at a "minute's notice." These minute men, due to their more regular and intense training, were to be the front line defense for the colony. Events were beginning to take a rapid pace and every day seemed to bring the colony closer to rebellion.
At the same time, a new Massachusetts Provincial Assembly was elected and meeting in Salem, Massachusetts. (Gage had moved the seat of government to Salem from Boston due to the unrest there.) This body was called by the governor to carry out official government business, but most members refused to support the governor's "new government," and few arrived at the meeting. Soon, Gage, dissatisfied with the new Assembly, dissolved the legislature. This time though, the Patriot leaders called for the Assembly to meet at the First Parish Church in Concord, Massachusetts, on October 7, 1774. They agreed to create the First Massachusetts Provincial Congress, based on the format of the original Provincial Assembly before the Coercive Acts. This was an illegal (not recognized by the British government) elected body representing the people of Massachusetts.
This organization assumed the authority to collect taxes, pass resolutions, and, more importantly, organize the militia. John Hancock was elected as president, and a committee of safety was established to oversee the formation, training, and supply of a militia. Supplies were ordered to be collected at several locations, including Concord. The small town became the center of the new opposition government and found itself at the threshold of revolution that next spring. Massachusetts had just taken the biggest step in open revolt against Governor Gage, Parliament, and the King.
Though Gage might have had sympathy for the colonists, he could not understand their view of freedom. He believed the rule of law was the total authority of the King and Parliament over the colonies. Their freedoms as British citizens were ingrained in that belief of the rule of law. The colonial Whigs/Patriots believed as freeborn people they had the right to be governed by laws of their own making. As events moved closer and closer to rebellion, this became the crux of the dispute.
The King and Parliament underestimated the Patriots in New England. They were determined, well organized, militarized, and had a sophisticated system of communication. Gage realized he had little support in America, and his superiors back in Great Britain were oblivious of his situation, no matter how much he tried to enlighten them. He was a man trapped in a no-win situation, and no matter what he did, the possibility of open war was always present. Referring to the Patriots of Massachusetts, Gage wrote to the British secretary of war in late September 1774: " ... no people are more determined for a Civil War."
In Boston (Part II)
Start this part of the tour at the famous Boston Common. We recommend you start at the Boston Common Visitor Center (GPS: N 42.355410, W 71.063791). The Boston Common has been a city park since 1634. There are many monuments located on the Common, but one of note is the Boston Massacre Monument (GPS: N 42.354278, W 71.064434). It was here on the Common that many British soldiers were encamped in 1774-75.
At the west gate exit of Boston Common (along Charles Street, on your way to the Boston Public Garden) is a plaque commemorating the spot where the British crossed the Charles River on April 18, 1775. At that time this area was the shoreline of the river. It was a perfect location as the British camps were nearby, and this area was a marshland hidden from public view. The plaque is on one of the stone columns next to Charles Street (GPS: N 42.354527, W 71.068382).
Southeast of the Common is the site of the Liberty Tree. From the Boston Massacre Monument, walk south on Tremont Street, then take a left onto Boylston Street. The monument for the Liberty Tree will be at the southwest corner of Boylston/Essex and Washington Streets (GPS: N 42.352257, W 71.062801). The Liberty Tree, an elm tree, became a location for protests against the Stamp Act and other British colonial policies. The Liberty Tree became a symbol of colonial opposition to British rule before and during the American Revolution. During the siege of Boston in 1775, the tree was cut down by Loyalists.
Retrace your steps to the Boston Common Visitor Center and follow the Freedom Trail northward. Take the Freedom Trail to Faneuil Hall (GPS: N 42.360005, W 71.056468), approximately a half-mile walk. You will pass several historic churches and cemeteries along the way. Of special note is the Granary Burying Ground where Patriots Samuel Adams, Paul Revere, Crispus Attucks, and John Hancock (among others) are buried.
From the Granary Burying Ground, take Broomfield Street (directly across from the Burying Ground gate). Walk down Broomfield Street, and make a left onto Province Street. On your left, you will see a plaque marking the location of the Province House (GPS: N 42.356912, W 71.060181), the home of the Royal Governor. It was here that Governor and General Thomas Gage lived. Return to Broomfield Street and make a left onto Washington Street. Washington Street will take you to the Old State House.
The Old State House (GPS: N 42.358662, W 71.057450) served as the Massachusetts capitol building from 1713-98. It now serves as a museum and includes extensive exhibits on the Revolutionary period of Boston. Next to the east side of the building is the marker for the Boston Massacre that took place here at this intersection on March 5, 1770. Continue on to the front of Faneuil Hall; here is the Samuel Adams statue, commemorating one of the more famous Patriots. Opened in 1743, Faneuil Hall served as a marketplace and meeting hall. Here, town meetings, lectures, and debates were held. It was here in November 1774 that a meeting to discuss the arrival of the tea ships was supposed to be held until the crowd was too large and required the meeting to move to the Old South Meeting House. Today, Faneuil Hall still serves as a market and a popular part of the Boston National Historical Park.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "A Single Blow"
by .
Copyright © 2018 Phillip S. Greenwalt and Robert Orrison.
Excerpted by permission of Savas Beatie LLC.
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