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Overview
In describing the relationship between anatomical features and surface form, the chapters on anatomy include drawings of the bones and muscles of the trunk, upper and lower limbs, and the head and its prominent aspects. A final section focuses on accessories, such as eyeglasses and clothing — items which, when worn, virtually become part of the figure's anatomy.
Clearly and concisely written, Anatomy and Perspective will be an important addition to the personal library of anyone interested in drawing the human figure.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780486146409 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Dover Publications |
| Publication date: | 06/27/2012 |
| Series: | Dover Art Instruction |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 96 |
| File size: | 11 MB |
| Note: | This product may take a few minutes to download. |
Read an Excerpt
ANATOMY AND PERSPECTIVE
The Fundamentals of Figure Drawing
By CHARLES OLIVER
Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 1972 Charles W. OliverAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-14640-9
CHAPTER 1
General drawing
Preparation for drawing
Drawing is, at its simplest, the making of marks on a surface. Therefore any tool which will mark and any surface which will receive marks, is suitable for use. The various media available are consequently too numerous to list in detail, but there are some which, because of their availability, lend themselves more readily than others. If my first premise is true then drawing and painting become inseparable. There is little doubt that in referring to drawing, or in producing a book on drawing, we are thinking of some limitation of medium and usually a restriction of colour range. Most of the drawings and diagrams in this book will have been made on paper with instruments traditionally used for such work—pencil, chalk, pen and ink, etc. The paper may be white or coloured, the chalks and inks black or coloured.
The medium will probably be important to the individual artist. One may use black or red crayon while another may prefer pen and ink. Whatever your choice of medium you may well be fastidious in your choice of materials. It would be wise always to have a choice of media to hand, but I think it would be a wrong attitude to decide beforehand which medium to use. On a particular occasion the figure may seem to call for interpretation in a linear way and therefore a pencil or pen line may seem to offer the best means of expression. On the other hand, if the figure and its surroundings create an exciting pattern of dark and light areas, then perhaps charcoal or brush and washes may seem more suitable. Such a decision is better made when you have seen the model's setting. On pages 38–9 you will find a collection of sketches in different media (figs. 36–40).
Transcending the question of media is the problem of expressing something of the interest of the various forms of the body, its rhythms and integrations. The draughtsman's method of approach is also very important. A brief note with a stubby pencil on the back of an envelope may, if taken at the right moment, have more vitality than the most elaborately wrought drawing done with the best quality materials. However, in setting out to pursue a serious course of study in drawing the figure, it would be foolish not to have suitable materials, so these should not be completely neglected.
A very important item of equipment is the drawing board. For normal use this need not be more than half imperial size, 22 in. × 15 in. (56 cm. × 38 cm.). It should be light but rigid, and soft enough to take drawing pins easily, and its corners and edges should be absolutely true. Drawing paper should be placed precisely on the board so that its edges and those of the board are exactly parallel, and then pinned or clipped firmly. If for any reason the paper or board is not truly rectangular, the right-handed draughtsman should try to arrange for the right-hand edge of paper and board to be parallel. The reason for this is quite simple. In drawing you must be constantly estimating the angles of direction of contours, and the vertical edge of the paper or board is a valuable constant or datum. If the edges of paper and board are both parallel then all is well, but if not, which one is to be regarded as the datum—paper or board?
All directions have to be estimated in relation to others. It is an axiom of geometry that 'things equal to the same thing are equal to one another'. This might be developed to read 'directions related to one constant direction (horizontal or vertical) must be related to each other'. You must therefore, at all times, be acutely aware of a sense of the horizontal and vertical, as if you had a [cross product] engraved on your eye (fig. 2).
One purely practical consideration may be worth mentioning here. An easy way of drawing a straight, freehand, vertical line is by hooking the little finger over the edge of the board (fig. 3). The hand can move freely up and down the board to draw vertical lines or to check for vertical relationships. If the paper is pinned askew, or much worse, not pinned at all, such verticals are useless. I make no apology for labouring this point, because I believe that the accurate transcription of directions is fundamental to good drawing.
When drawing from the model, some people may prefer to stand at an easel, others may prefer to sit. This is a personal matter. Large drawings may need to be done standing at an easel so that you can step back a pace or two, from time to time, to estimate the relationship between one part and another. Smaller drawings—up to half imperial size—can be comfortably managed sitting down. Try to sit so that the drawing board and the model can be seen with equal ease. I prefer to hold the board almost vertical on my knees. When drawing with a pen and wash the board must be in a nearly horizontal position so that a, the ink can run down to the tip of the nib and b, the wash does not run too quickly down the paper. It is almost impossible to do a pen and wash drawing at an easel.
Whether standing or sitting, make sure that the board is adequately lit. If board and model can be seen with equal ease it will be relatively easy to keep both under constant observation with minimum movement of eyes and head. One reason for this is that in transferring impressions from model to paper the time-lag should be as short as possible. The eyes should be on the model as much as on the drawing. I have often watched students at work, engrossed in drawing in (and rubbing out) with only an occasional glance at the model. In contrast to this, I recall an occasion when I was drawing in the life class at the Royal College of Art when the (then) Principal, Sir William Rothenstein, came to my easel and began to draw, exclaiming 'Watch my eyes, watch my eyes'. Although this was rather comic at the time, I realized that he was the whole time observing the model, with only occasional glances at the paper.
Avoid the bad habit of rubbing out every few seconds. Nothing is more conducive to feeble, indecisive drawing. There are occasions when it may be necessary to erase a detail, but in general it is a time-wasting process. Drawings made direct from the figure do not depend on neatness nor even on absolute correctness of line for their quality. If you draw a line in the wrong place, or the model should move, necessitating alteration of any lines, carry on with the drawing by making the necessary correction. If later the false lines really interfere with the clarity of the drawing, then perhaps an eraser may be used. An examination of the drawing in fig. 5 will show that various attempts at the line were made before the artist was satisfied.
It is sometimes possible to begin with very delicate lines, strengthening these in the process of developing the drawing. In drawing with ink it is, of course, impossible to draw pale lines and impossible to rub out. In such circumstances tentative lines may be drawn as thinly as possible, or even fine dotted lines may be used. Consideration should be given as to where a line is going to start and finish before embarking on it. Do not, under any circumstances, go over the outlines a second time merely to make them clearer or more precise. In drawing with a pen, explore the lines from the outset with the pen. Never draw in the outline with pencil first and then trace over with pen.
When figure drawing is practised as an end in itself it is, I think, true to say that to travel is better than to arrive. Most of our figure drawings, when completed, have little values as pictures. It is in the doing of them that the interest lies. For this reason I care not whether your drawings are done on fine quality Ingres paper or on cheap sugar paper, nor will they be better for being done in red crayon than in ordinary HB pencil.
Try to have a purpose when starting to draw. Examine the situation carefully. Study the model, the surroundings, the lighting. If there is room, move round the figure to find the best angle. When drawing in a life class it often happens that either the model or the pose may not be particularly exciting, but usually some feature is worthy of attention—perhaps the way the neck sits on the shoulders, or the stress in a leg, or even the ground plan of the feet and any supporting furniture. If you are absolutely convinced that there is nothing there of any interest, then it is better not to draw the figure at all. Draw your colleagues in the class, draw the furniture, draw any cast from the antique that may be available. But do not do a bored drawing. Draw well if you can, badly if you must—but don't be bored or boring.
Elementary principles
There was a time when beginners were not allowed to draw from life until they had satisfied their tutors that they had done sufficient anatomical study and drawing from casts of the antique sculptures and had thus acquired reasonable facility in drawing; nor were they allowed to paint until they had a substantial groundwork in drawing. Nowadays the casts have been swept away, anatomy and perspective are often taught only superficially, and the trend has been away from meticulous representation of the figure. Much of the drudgery and tedium has gone from preliminary study, but nevertheless, if you wish to attain proficiency in figure drawing, some foundation work is necessary. While figure drawing is wonderfully fascinating it is also very difficult and can be frustrating to the beginner; there is much to be said for serving an apprenticeship in drawing inanimate objects and learning some elements of draughtsmanship in general and figure drawing in particular.
One of the essential requirements is a keen, observant eye. Drawing is essentially the making of lines and shapes on a surface. If the drawing is to have any meaning for an observer, that is, if it is to communicate an idea to another person, then the lines and shapes must create a pattern which he will recognize and be an accurate expression of what the draughtsman wishes to communicate. In representational drawing it is necessary to acquire the technique of accurate representation in the same way that an executant musician must acquire complete mastery of his instrument in order to convey a convincing presentation of a composer's idea. This can most easily be demonstrated by one or two simple experiments. Think for a moment of a horizontal straight line. Then try, in a drawing, to communicate the idea. The result would be thus:
The only characteristic possessed by this straight line is direction. This line goes from east to west (or vice versa) but there are hundreds of directions in which lines may go. So obviously in drawing of any sort it is of vital importance to determine precisely in which direction the lines shall move.
In drawing from the figure it will be necessary, firstly, to assess the direction in which various contours or relationships are moving, and secondly, to be able to reproduce these directions on paper or canvas.
Once a line is drawn, the next factor is its length. 'How long is a line?' sounds rather like 'How long is a piece of string?'. One line is any length, but two lines immediately create a relationship. So draw a line AB of any length in any direction.
Now extend it indefinitely through B. Mark off (by eye) point C so that BC= AB. Check the result with a ruler. How accurate were you? C1 was my estimate; C2 is the measured truth.
This then is a matter of proportion. In its simplest form drawing is a relationship of direction and proportion.
Now draw a square. How do you go about it? I did it this way—first of all the line AB. Then, by eye, the verticals AC and BD. These must, of course, be really vertical, that is, at 90° to AB, not 80° nor 91° and must be exactly the same length as AB. Join CD. C1D1 was my estimate, C2D2 the measured truth. Not quite so easy as you might imagine, but this sort of estimation of directions and proportions must occur in every drawing. In the figure it is much more difficult and has to be repeated many times.
One way of assessing directions and proportions is by triangulation. The simplest demonstration of this occurs in the copying of a triangle ABC (fig. 9) not necessarily to the same size. Try this exercise and analyse your method. For instance you might start at A1 and draw A1x any length. Then draw A1y any length, taking care that the enclosed angle is exactly that of the original. Mark off point C1 any distance from A1. Point B1 can now be determined by drawing C1z at exactly the same angle as that in the original triangle. Where line A1x and C1z intersect is the only possible position for B1.
In progressing from point to point in a survey of the figure it is unwise and unnecessary to guess (fig. 10). Every shape should be accurately assessed. This is sometimes tedious at first, but constant practice produces familiarity and familiarity produces confidence and originality. It is useless to imitate the style of the great draughtsmen—to try to draw with the fluency of a Raphael or Degas; such drawing is born of rare talent, profound study and observation, and constant practice. Much better to do a less spectacular study, but one which represents first-hand observation.
In drawing the square (fig. 8) or triangle (fig. 9) it is obvious that the lines drawn create a shape. These shapes are more important that the lines that make them. Apart from shapes made by various parts of the figure there are also shapes contained between background and figure which, if accurately observed, help to control the proportions. A good example of this is seen in the study of an athlete by Michelangelo (fig. 11) where the figure has been deliberately faded out and the lines around shapes such as A and B reinforced in indian ink to stress the point. The tiny shape A is made up from the arm, chest, ribs, pelvis and thigh. If in this pose the shape were made too large or too small or otherwise wrong, then the whole drawing would be affected. One of the most common faults made by beginners in drawing and painting, is failure to observe the relationship between the figure and its surroundings.
Form in drawing is usually understood to mean the three-dimensional shape of an object. A square has only shape, but a cube has form. While many artists have striven to suggest this three-dimensional quality in their works this is not by any means essential and there are numerous examples, from the figures on Greek vases to artists like Matisse, Beardsley and Modigliani, which prove that other qualities are equally acceptable, especially where decoration is concerned. It might even be argued that it is no business of the artist to try to create the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional plane. Drawings have, from early times, also been made as preparatory studies for paintings and sculptures where some indication of volume was necessary. Such preliminary drawings in the hands of great masters like Raphael, Rubens and others have always been highly prized because of their directness and boldness and in fact, lead us directly into the artist's mind. It is this type of drawing that I always have in mind; drawing in which one is seeking after the formal qualities of the figure to be drawn, and not merely its decorative shape. In the days when all painting and sculpture was figurative, such studies were a necessary preliminary for the artist. Nowadays the drawings often serve no purpose other than exercises in the observation, understanding and representation of the figure.
The human figure is a complex structure and to draw it satisfactorily it is necessary to understand how it is made, how it functions and how to represent it on canvas or paper. It is my belief that the problem is divided broadly into two aspects—first, a general knowledge of drawing principles and second, a very specialized knowledge of the figure itself.
The representation of forms on a flat surface to produce a sense of volume relies on perspective, and light and shadows. I would now like to examine the nature of the usefulness of both these elements.
It is quite possible to suggest three-dimensional volumes in drawing by the use of line only, as in fig. 12a, b and c, but there are instances where line alone is quite inadequate. No amount of skill can make the circle, d, fully explicit. Is it a wire ring, a flat disc or a ball? If the drawing is reinforced by indicating the effect of light on the surroundings, then its identity may be explained as in fig. 13.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from ANATOMY AND PERSPECTIVE by CHARLES OLIVER. Copyright © 1972 Charles W. Oliver. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc..
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Table of Contents
Contents
Title Page,Acknowledgments,
Copyright Page,
Epigraph,
Introduction,
General drawing,
The anatomy of the figure,
The head,
Accessories,
Conclusion,
Notes on the illustrations,
Bibliography,
Index,