| Introduction | 1 |
I | The Nature of the Universe | 5 |
| The Views of the Early Greek Philosophers | 6 |
| Plato's Theory of the Universe | 10 |
| Aristotle's Conception of the Universe | 12 |
| The Views of the Epicureans, Stoics, and Skeptics | 16 |
| The Universe According to the Greco-Religious Thinkers | 18 |
| The Position of the Early Christian Thinkers | 19 |
| The Positions of the Medieval Christian Thinkers | 20 |
| The Views of the Forerunners of the Renaissance | 27 |
| The Universe According to the Philosophers of the Renaissance | 29 |
| Descartes' Conception of the Universe | 31 |
| Spinoza's Theory of the Universe | 33 |
| The Positions of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume | 35 |
| Leibnitz' Theory of the Universe | 39 |
| Kant's Conception of the Universe | 40 |
| Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel | 41 |
| The Views of the Later German Philosophers | 44 |
| The Positions of John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer | 47 |
| Josiah Royce, William James, and John Dewey | 49 |
| The Views of Henri Bergson and George Santayana | 51 |
II | Man's Place in the Universe | 53 |
| Man's Importance According to the Early Greek Philosophers | 54 |
| The Positions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 56 |
| The Views of the Later Greek Thinkers | 58 |
| Man's Importance According to the Early Christian Thinkers | 58 |
| The Views of the Medieval Christian Thinkers | 59 |
| As Seen by the Forerunners of the Renaissance | 62 |
| The Positions of Bacon and Hobbes | 63 |
| The Views of Descartes and Spinoza | 64 |
| Man's Place as Seen by Locke, Berkeley, and Hume | 65 |
| The Views of Leibnitz | 67 |
| The Position of Rousseau | 68 |
| Kant's View of Man's Importance | 68 |
| Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher, and Hegel | 69 |
| The Views of Later German Thinkers | 72 |
| Man's Place According to Comte | 74 |
| The Positions of Mill and Spencer | 75 |
| The Views of James, Dewey, and Russell | 77 |
III | What Is Good and What Is Evil? | 80 |
| Good and Evil According to the Early Greek Philosophers | 81 |
| The Ethical Views of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 83 |
| Good and Evil According to the Epicureans and Stoics | 86 |
| The Position of the Greco-Religious Thinkers | 87 |
| The Ethical Views of the Early Christian Thinkers | 88 |
| The Views of the Medieval Christian Thinkers | 89 |
| Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke, and Leibnitz | 91 |
| The Ethical Philosophy of Kant | 94 |
| The Views of Fichte and Schopenhauer | 95 |
| According to Mill, Bentham, and Spencer | 97 |
| The Ethical Views of James and Dewey | 98 |
IV | The Nature of God | 100 |
| The Views of the Early Greek Philosophers | 102 |
| The Concept of God in the Thought of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 104 |
| The Position of the Later Greek Thinkers | 106 |
| The Greco-Religious Ideas About God | 107 |
| The Early and Medieval Christian Conception of God | 108 |
| Bruno, Boehme, and Other Forerunners of the Renaissance | 113 |
| The Position of Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, and Pascal | 114 |
| The Nature of God According to Spinoza | 116 |
| The Views of Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Leibnitz | 117 |
| The Concept of God in the Thought of Kant | 120 |
| Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Hegel, and Later German Thinkers | 121 |
| The Position of Comte, Spencer, and Bradley | 124 |
| The Views of James and Dewey | 124 |
V | Fate versus Free Will | 127 |
| The Idea of Fate Among the Early Greek Thinkers | 129 |
| According to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 130 |
| The Views of the Later Greek Philosophers | 132 |
| The Position of the Greco-Religious Thinkers | 134 |
| Early and Medieval Christian Thinkers | 135 |
| The Views of Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, and Spinoza | 139 |
| The Position of Locke, of Hume, and of Leibnitz | 142 |
| Fate and Free Will According to Voltaire and to Rousseau | 145 |
| Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Schopenhauer, and Other German Thinkers | 146 |
| The Position of Mill and of Green | 150 |
| The Views of James and Dewey | 151 |
VI | The Soul and Immortality | 153 |
| The Soul as Viewed by the Early Greek Philosophers | 155 |
| The Soul and Immortality According to Plato and Aristotle | 157 |
| The Position of the Later Greek Thinkers | 159 |
| The Views of Plotinus | 160 |
| The Early and Medieval Christian Conception of the Soul | 160 |
| The Soul According to the Forerunners of the Renaissance | 162 |
| The Views of Bacon and Hobbes | 163 |
| The Views of Descartes and Spinoza | 163 |
| Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Leibnitz | 165 |
| The Soul and Immortality According to Kant | 167 |
| Fichte, Schleiermacher, Herbart, and Schopenhauer | 168 |
| Recent and Present-Day Conceptions of the Soul and Immortality | 170 |
VII | Man and the State | 175 |
| The State as Viewed by the Early Greek Philosophers | 178 |
| The State According to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 181 |
| The Positions of the Later Greek Thinkers | 184 |
| The Views of the Early Christian Thinkers | 186 |
| The Views of the Medieval Christian Thinkers | 188 |
| The State as Viewed by the Forerunners of the Renaissance | 192 |
| Machiavelli's Conception of the State | 193 |
| Grotius, Hobbes, and Other Thinkers of the Renaissance | 194 |
| The Views of Spinoza, Locke, and Adam Smith | 196 |
| The Position of Voltaire and of Rousseau | 198 |
| The State According to Hegel, Marx, and Lassalle | 199 |
| De Maistre, Saint-Simon, and Comte | 200 |
| The Views of Mill and Spencer | 202 |
| Nietzsche's Conception of the State | 204 |
| The Views of Dewey and Recent Thinkers | 205 |
VIII | Man and Education | 207 |
| Education as Viewed by the Early Greek Philosophers | 209 |
| According to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 210 |
| The Roman Conception of Education | 212 |
| Early Christian Conception of Education | 213 |
| St. Benedict and the Monastic Way of Life | 214 |
| Education in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance | 215 |
| Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation | 217 |
| The Views of Bacon and Hobbes | 218 |
| Comenius' Philosophy of Education | 218 |
| Locke and Rousseau | 219 |
| Pestalozzi's Conception of Education | 221 |
| Herbart's View of Education | 222 |
| Froebel's Conception of Education | 223 |
IX | Mind and Matter | 226 |
| Mind and Matter as Contrasted by the Early Greek Thinkers | 228 |
| Plato, Aristotle, and the Later Greek Philosophers | 230 |
| The Positions of Philo and St. Augustine | 233 |
| According to the Medieval Christian Thinkers | 234 |
| Roger Bacon and Paracelsus | 235 |
| Francis Bacon and Hobbes | 236 |
| Descartes and Spinoza | 238 |
| Locke, Berkeley, and Hume | 240 |
| The Views of Leibnitz | 241 |
| Kant and Later German Philosophers | 241 |
| Bradley, Royce, and Bergson | 244 |
| Comte, James, Dewey, Santayana | 244 |
X | Ideas and Thinking | 246 |
| What Thinking Meant to the Early Greek Philosophers | 247 |
| According to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle | 249 |
| The Views of the Later Greek Philosophers | 250 |
| The Medieval Christian View | 251 |
| Galileo and the Beginning of the Scientific Attitude | 253 |
| Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza | 254 |
| Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Leibnitz | 256 |
| Kant, Fichte, Hegel | 257 |
| Comte, Mill, Spencer | 260 |
| James and Dewey | 260 |
XI | Some Recent Approaches to Philosophy | 263 |
| Kierkegaard and the Beginnings of Existentialism | 264 |
| The Views of Heidegger, Jaspers, and Sartre | 265 |
| Three Philosophers of Science: Whitehead, Russell, and Moore | 266 |
| Logical Positivism | 268 |
| Two Philosophers of the Spirit | 269 |
| Some Current Philosophers in the Religious Tradition | 270 |
| Conclusion | 272 |
| Biographical Notes | 275 |
| Index | 297 |