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Biology and Evolution of the Mollusca, Volume 2 / Edition 1
- ISBN-10:
- 081536184X
- ISBN-13:
- 9780815361848
- Pub. Date:
- 03/06/2020
- Publisher:
- CRC Press
- ISBN-10:
- 081536184X
- ISBN-13:
- 9780815361848
- Pub. Date:
- 03/06/2020
- Publisher:
- CRC Press
![Biology and Evolution of the Mollusca, Volume 2 / Edition 1](http://img.images-bn.com/static/redesign/srcs/images/grey-box.png?v11.8.5)
Biology and Evolution of the Mollusca, Volume 2 / Edition 1
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Overview
Key selling features:
- Comprehensively reviews molluscan biology and evolutionary history
- Includes a description the anatomy and physiology of anatomical systems
- Up to date treatment with a comprehensive bibliography
- Reviews the phylogenetic history of the major molluscan lineages
Product Details
ISBN-13: | 9780815361848 |
---|---|
Publisher: | CRC Press |
Publication date: | 03/06/2020 |
Pages: | 890 |
Product dimensions: | 8.50(w) x 11.00(h) x (d) |
About the Author
Table of Contents
ContentsAbout the Authors......................................................................................................................................................................xvii
Introduction to Volume Two.......................................................................................................................................................xix
Chapter 12 Molluscan Relationships.......................................................................................................................................... 1
12.1 The Hypothetical Ancestral Mollusc............................................................................................................. 1
12.2 Hypotheses of Phylogenetic Relationships of the Major Molluscan Groups................................................ 1
12.2.1 Aculifera – Conchifera, Testaria, and Serialia Hypotheses............................................................. 4
12.2.2 The Search for the Molluscan Sister Group..................................................................................... 6
12.3 Repetition of Organs..................................................................................................................................... 8
12.4 Ano-Pedal Flexure and a Change in Body Orientation................................................................................. 9
12.5 Reduction and Paedomorphosis.................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 13 Early History and Extinct Groups.......................................................................................................................... 11
13.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 11
13.1.1 The First Molluscs?........................................................................................................................ 12
13.1.2 Shell Morphology........................................................................................................................... 13
13.1.2.1 Beyond Shell Morphology............................................................................................ 14
13.1.2.2 Muscle Scars................................................................................................................. 16
13.1.3 Phylogenetics and Fossils............................................................................................................... 18
13.2 Originations, Extinctions, and Recoveries.................................................................................................. 18
13.3 The Molluscan Fossil Record...................................................................................................................... 20
13.3.1 Ediacaran........................................................................................................................................ 20
13.3.2 Cambrian........................................................................................................................................ 22
13.3.2.1 Biomineralisation.......................................................................................................... 24
13.3.2.2 Taxa............................................................................................................................... 25
13.3.3 Ordovician...................................................................................................................................... 51
13.3.3.1 Taxa............................................................................................................................... 52
13.3.4 Silurian........................................................................................................................................... 55
13.3.4.1 Taxa............................................................................................................................... 55
13.3.5 Devonian........................................................................................................................................ 59
13.3.5.1 Taxa............................................................................................................................... 59
13.3.6 Carboniferous................................................................................................................................. 61
13.3.6.1 Taxa............................................................................................................................... 62
13.3.7 Permian.......................................................................................................................................... 64
13.3.7.1 Extinction...................................................................................................................... 64
13.3.7.2 Taxa............................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 14 Polyplacophora, Monoplacophora, and Aplacophorans......................................................................................... 67
14.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 67
14.2 Polyplacophora (Chitons, Placophora, Loricata, Amphineura in Part)....................................................... 67
14.2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 67
14.2.2 Phylogeny and Classification.......................................................................................................... 67
14.2.2.1 Sister Group Relationships............................................................................................ 69
14.2.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................... 69
14.2.3.1 Shell and Girdle............................................................................................................. 70
14.2.3.2 Head-Foot, Muscles, and Mantle.................................................................................. 70
14.2.3.3 Mantle Groove (Mantle Cavity).................................................................................... 72
14.2.3.4 Digestive System........................................................................................................... 72
14.2.3.5 Renopericardial System................................................................................................. 75
14.2.3.6 Reproductive System..................................................................................................... 76
14.2.3.7 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................... 78
14.2.3.8 Chromosomes................................................................................................................ 82
14.2.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour................................................................................................... 82
14.2.4.1 Habits and Habitats....................................................................................................... 82
14.2.4.2 Locomotion................................................................................................................... 82
14.2.4.3 Feeding and Diet........................................................................................................... 82
14.2.4.4 Reproduction, Development, and Growth..................................................................... 83
14.2.4.5 Associations................................................................................................................... 84
14.2.4.6 Predators, Defence, and Behaviour............................................................................... 84
14.2.5 Diversity and Fossil History........................................................................................................... 84
14.3 The Monoplacophora (= Tryblidia, Neopilinida, Tergomya in part)........................................................... 84
14.3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 84
14.3.2 Phylogeny and Classification.......................................................................................................... 84
14.3.2.1 Sister Group Relationships............................................................................................ 85
14.3.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................... 86
14.3.3.1 Shell and Protoconch..................................................................................................... 86
14.3.3.2 Head-Foot and Mantle................................................................................................... 87
14.3.3.3 Mantle Groove (Mantle Cavity).................................................................................... 88
14.3.3.4 Digestive System........................................................................................................... 89
14.3.3.5 Renopericardial and Reproductive Systems.................................................................. 90
14.3.3.6 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................... 90
14.3.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour................................................................................................... 91
14.3.4.1 Habits and Habitats....................................................................................................... 91
14.3.4.2 Feeding and Diet........................................................................................................... 92
14.3.4.3 Reproduction, Development, and Growth..................................................................... 92
14.3.4.4 Associations................................................................................................................... 92
14.3.4.5 Predation, Defence, and Other Behavioural Attributes................................................. 93
14.3.5 Diversity and Fossil History........................................................................................................... 93
14.4 Caudofoveata and Solenogastres: The Aplacophoran Groups.................................................................... 93
14.4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 93
14.4.2 Phylogeny and Classification.......................................................................................................... 94
14.4.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................... 96
14.4.3.1 Head-Foot and Mantle................................................................................................... 96
14.4.3.2 Digestive System........................................................................................................... 97
14.4.3.3 Renopericardial and Reproductive Systems.................................................................. 97
14.4.3.4 Nervous System............................................................................................................. 97
14.4.3.5 Development.................................................................................................................. 98
14.4.3.6 Habits and Habitats....................................................................................................... 98
14.5 Caudofoveata (or Chaetodermomorpha, Scutopoda).................................................................................. 99
14.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 99
14.5.2 Phylogeny and Classification.......................................................................................................... 99
14.5.2.1 Sister Group Relationships............................................................................................ 99
14.5.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................... 99
14.5.3.1 Spicules......................................................................................................................... 99
14.5.3.2 Head-Foot and Mantle................................................................................................... 99
14.5.3.3 Mantle Cavity................................................................................................................ 99
14.5.3.4 Digestive System......................................................................................................... 100
14.5.3.5 Renopericardial and Reproductive Systems.................................................................101
14.5.3.6 Nervous System and Sense Organs..............................................................................101
14.5.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour..................................................................................................101
14.5.4.1 Habits and Habitats......................................................................................................101
14.5.4.2 Feeding and Diet.........................................................................................................101
14.5.4.3 Reproduction, Development, and Growth................................................................... 102
14.5.4.4 Associations................................................................................................................. 102
14.5.5 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 102
14.6 Solenogastres (or Neomeniomorpha)........................................................................................................ 102
14.6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 102
14.6.2 Phylogeny and Classification........................................................................................................ 102
14.6.2.1 Sister Group Relationships.......................................................................................... 102
14.6.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................. 102
14.6.3.1 Spicules....................................................................................................................... 102
14.6.3.2 Body............................................................................................................................ 102
14.6.3.3 Mantle Cavity.............................................................................................................. 103
14.6.3.4 Digestive System......................................................................................................... 103
14.6.3.5 Renopericardial and Reproductive Systems................................................................ 104
14.6.3.6 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................. 105
14.6.4 Biology and Ecology.................................................................................................................... 105
14.6.4.1 Habits and Habitats..................................................................................................... 105
14.6.4.2 Feeding and Diet......................................................................................................... 105
14.6.4.3 Reproduction, Development, and Growth................................................................... 105
14.6.4.4 Associations................................................................................................................. 107
14.6.5 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 107
Chapter 15 The Bivalvia......................................................................................................................................................... 109
15.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 109
15.2 Classification............................................................................................................................................. 109
15.3 Morphology................................................................................................................................................112
15.3.1 The Shell.......................................................................................................................................113
15.3.1.1 Orientation....................................................................................................................113
15.3.1.2 Sculpture.......................................................................................................................113
15.3.1.3 Shell Structure..............................................................................................................113
15.3.1.4 Periostracum.................................................................................................................115
15.3.1.5 Ligament.......................................................................................................................117
15.3.1.6 Hinge............................................................................................................................119
15.3.1.7 Pallial Line and Sinus.................................................................................................. 120
15.3.1.8 Shell Reduction, Accessory Shell Plates, and Secondary Shells................................. 120
15.3.2 Muscles and Their Scars.............................................................................................................. 124
15.3.3 The Foot....................................................................................................................................... 124
15.3.4 The Byssus – Structure and Function.......................................................................................... 125
15.3.5 Mantle and Siphons...................................................................................................................... 127
15.3.6 Mantle Cavity............................................................................................................................... 132
15.3.6.1 The Ctenidia – Their Structure and Ciliation.............................................................. 132
15.3.6.2 The Labial Palps.......................................................................................................... 139
15.3.6.3 Other Features of the Mantle Cavity............................................................................141
15.3.7 Digestive System...........................................................................................................................141
15.3.8 Renopericardial System................................................................................................................143
15.3.9 Reproductive System.....................................................................................................................143
15.3.10 Nervous System and Sense Organs.............................................................................................. 145
15.4 Biology and Ecology................................................................................................................................. 145
15.4.1 Habits and Habitats...................................................................................................................... 145
15.4.1.1 Locomotion................................................................................................................. 145
15.4.1.2 Attachment.................................................................................................................. 146
15.4.1.3 Secondary Soft-Bottom Dwellers.................................................................................147
15.4.1.4 Burrowers and Borers.................................................................................................. 149
15.4.2 Feeding......................................................................................................................................... 151
15.4.3 Life History and Growth.............................................................................................................. 152
15.4.4 Associations................................................................................................................................. 156
15.4.4.1 Bacterial and Algal Symbionts.................................................................................... 156
15.4.5 Relationships with Other Animals............................................................................................... 158
15.4.5.1 Predators of Bivalves................................................................................................... 159
15.5 Economic Values....................................................................................................................................... 159
15.6 Diversity and Fossil History...................................................................................................................... 159
15.6.1 The First Bivalves......................................................................................................................... 159
15.6.2 The Evolutionary Radiation of Bivalves...................................................................................... 159
15.6.2.1 Freshwater Bivalves.....................................................................................................161
15.6.3 Patterns of Bivalve Diversity.........................................................................................................161
15.7 The Protobranch Bivalves......................................................................................................................... 162
15.7.1 Phylogeny and Classification........................................................................................................ 162
15.7.2 Biology and Ecology.................................................................................................................... 163
15.7.3 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 164
15.8 The Autobranch Bivalves.......................................................................................................................... 164
15.8.1 Pteriomorphia............................................................................................................................... 164
15.8.1.1 Phylogeny and Classification...................................................................................... 164
15.8.1.2 Biology and Ecology................................................................................................... 165
15.8.1.3 Diversity and Fossil History........................................................................................ 167
15.8.2 Heteroconchia............................................................................................................................... 167
15.8.3 Palaeoheterodonta........................................................................................................................ 168
15.8.3.1 Trigoniida.................................................................................................................... 168
15.8.3.2 Unionida...................................................................................................................... 168
15.8.4 Heterodonta...................................................................................................................................170
15.8.4.1 Archiheterodonta......................................................................................................... 172
15.8.5 Euheterodonta.............................................................................................................................. 172
15.8.5.1 Phylogeny and Classification.......................................................................................173
15.8.5.2 Biology and Ecology....................................................................................................174
15.8.5.3 Diversity and Fossil History.........................................................................................175
15.8.5.4 The Rudists...................................................................................................................175
15.8.6 Anomalodesmata (= Poromyata)...................................................................................................178
Chapter 16 The Scaphopoda................................................................................................................................................... 183
16.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 183
16.2 Phylogeny and Classification.................................................................................................................... 183
16.2.1 Sister Group Relationships.......................................................................................................... 183
16.3 Morphology............................................................................................................................................... 184
16.3.1 Shell............................................................................................................................................. 184
16.3.2 Head-Foot, Captacula, and Mantle.............................................................................................. 185
16.3.3 Mantle Cavity.............................................................................................................................. 186
16.3.4 Digestive System......................................................................................................................... 188
16.3.5 Renopericardial System............................................................................................................... 189
16.3.6 Reproductive System................................................................................................................... 189
16.3.7 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................................. 189
16.4 Biology and Ecology................................................................................................................................. 190
16.4.1 Habits and Habitats...................................................................................................................... 190
16.4.2 Locomotion.................................................................................................................................. 190
16.4.3 Feeding and Diet.......................................................................................................................... 190
16.4.4 Reproduction, Development, and Growth................................................................................... 192
16.4.5 Associations................................................................................................................................. 192
16.4.6 Predation, Defence, and Other Behavioural Attributes............................................................... 193
16.5 Diversity and Fossil History...................................................................................................................... 193
16.5.1 The Major Groups of Scaphopods............................................................................................... 193
16.6 Human Uses.............................................................................................................................................. 193
Chapter 17 The Cephalopoda................................................................................................................................................. 195
17.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 195
17.2 Phylogeny and Classification....................................................................................................................200
17.3 Morphology............................................................................................................................................... 202
17.3.1 Shell.............................................................................................................................................. 202
17.3.2 Head, Arms, and Funnel.............................................................................................................. 205
17.3.2.1 Embryological Evidence for the Derivation of Head Structures................................. 208
17.3.3 Epidermis (Skin)........................................................................................................................... 208
17.3.4 Head and Funnel Retractor Muscles............................................................................................ 209
17.3.4.1 Muscular Attachments, Shell Growth and the Addition of Septa.................................210
17.3.5 The Fossil Record of Soft Tissues................................................................................................ 212
17.3.6 Mantle Wall.................................................................................................................................. 213
17.3.7 Mantle Cavity................................................................................................................................214
17.4 Biology and Ecology..................................................................................................................................218
17.4.1 Habits and Habitats.......................................................................................................................218
17.4.1.1 The Habits and Habitats of Extinct Ectocochleate Cephalopods.................................218
17.4.2 Locomotion and Buoyancy.......................................................................................................... 220
17.4.2.1 Locomotion................................................................................................................. 220
17.4.2.2 Buoyancy..................................................................................................................... 222
17.4.2.3 The Shell as a Buoyancy Device................................................................................. 222
17.4.2.4 Other Buoyancy Strategies.......................................................................................... 227
17.4.3 The Ink Sac and Inking................................................................................................................ 228
17.4.4 Colour Changes – Chromatophores and Other Special Skin Structures..................................... 228
17.4.4.1 Chromatophores.......................................................................................................... 229
17.4.4.2 Structural Reflectors (Iridophores, Silvery Reflectors, and Leucophores).................. 229
17.4.5 Luminescent Organs.................................................................................................................... 231
17.5 Digestive System....................................................................................................................................... 233
17.5.1 The Jaws....................................................................................................................................... 233
17.5.2 The Radula................................................................................................................................... 233
17.5.3 Feeding......................................................................................................................................... 233
17.6 Renopericardial System............................................................................................................................. 236
17.7 Courtship, Reproduction, Development, and Growth............................................................................... 239
17.7.1 Reproductive System.................................................................................................................... 239
17.7.1.1 Sexual Characters and Sexual Dimorphism................................................................ 242
17.7.2 Courtship and Mating.................................................................................................................. 243
17.7.3 Life History..................................................................................................................................244
17.7.3.1 Spawn and Parental Care............................................................................................. 245
17.7.3.2 Development................................................................................................................ 245
17.7.4 The Nervous System, Sense Organs, and Behaviour................................................................... 247
17.7.5 The Endocrine System................................................................................................................. 249
17.7.6 Learning and Intelligence............................................................................................................ 249
17.7.7 Behaviour..................................................................................................................................... 249
17.7.8 Symbiotic Relationships............................................................................................................... 250
17.7.9 Predators....................................................................................................................................... 251
17.8 Economic Values....................................................................................................................................... 251
17.9 The Origin of Cephalopods....................................................................................................................... 251
17.10 Diversity and Fossil History...................................................................................................................... 256
17.10.1 The Ordovician Radiation and Beyond........................................................................................ 256
17.11 The Major Groups of Cephalopoda........................................................................................................... 258
17.11.1 The Nautiliforms.......................................................................................................................... 258
17.11.1.1 Ellesmeroceratia and Plectronoceratia...................................................................... 259
17.11.1.2 Orthoceratia............................................................................................................... 260
17.11.1.3 Discosorida................................................................................................................ 261
17.11.1.4 Endoceratia................................................................................................................ 261
17.11.1.5 Actinoceratia.............................................................................................................. 261
17.11.1.6 Nautilia...................................................................................................................... 262
17.12 Bactrita and Ammonitia (= Ammonoidea)................................................................................................ 262
17.12.1 Bactrita (= Bactritoidea)............................................................................................................... 262
17.12.2 Ammonitia (Ammonites)............................................................................................................. 264
17.12.2.1 The Embryonic Shell (Ammonitella)........................................................................ 267
17.12.2.2 Ammonite Sutural Patterns........................................................................................ 267
17.12.2.3 Life Habits................................................................................................................. 268
17.12.2.4 Aptychus and Jaws.................................................................................................... 269
17.12.2.5 Phylogeny, Classification, Diversity, and Fossil History of Ammonites................... 271
17.12.2.6 The Major Groups of Ammonites............................................................................. 272
17.13 Coleoida.................................................................................................................................................. 273
17.13.1 Phylogeny, Classification, Diversity, and Fossil History............................................................ 275
17.13.1.1 Belemnitidia (The Belemnites)................................................................................ 279
17.13.1.2 Decabrachia............................................................................................................. 279
17.13.1.3 Squid – A Grade Not a Clade – The Myopsida, Oegopsida, Bathyteuthoidea
(‘Teuthida’) ......................................................................................................... 284
17.13.1.4 Octobrachia (= Octopodiformes)............................................................................. 285
17.13.1.5 Giant Squid and Octopuses...................................................................................... 287
Chapter 18 Gastropoda I – Introduction and the Stem Groups.............................................................................................. 289
18.1 Introduction to the Gastropoda.................................................................................................................. 289
18.1.1 Phylogeny and Classification........................................................................................................ 289
18.1.2 Morphology.................................................................................................................................. 290
18.1.2.1 Shell, Operculum and External Body.......................................................................... 293
18.1.2.2 Shell Muscles.............................................................................................................. 294
18.1.2.3 Operculum................................................................................................................... 294
18.1.2.4 Head-Foot.................................................................................................................... 294
18.1.2.5 Mantle Cavity and Its Organs...................................................................................... 296
18.1.2.6 Digestive System......................................................................................................... 296
18.1.2.7 Renopericardial System............................................................................................... 297
18.1.2.8 Reproductive System...................................................................................................300
18.1.2.9 Nervous System and Sense Organs.............................................................................300
18.1.3 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour.................................................................................................300
18.1.3.1 Habits and Habitats.....................................................................................................300
18.1.3.2 Locomotion and Behaviour......................................................................................... 301
18.1.3.3 Life History................................................................................................................. 301
18.1.3.4 Feeding........................................................................................................................ 301
18.1.3.5 Associations................................................................................................................. 302
18.1.4 Economic Values.......................................................................................................................... 303
18.1.5 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 303
18.2 The Initial Radiation – Eogastropods and Orthogastropods ............................................................ 303
18.2.1 Hypothetical Reconstructions...................................................................................................... 303
18.2.1.1 A Hypothetical Ancestral Gastropod........................................................................... 307
18.2.1.2 Eogastropoda............................................................................................................... 308
18.2.1.3 Orthogastropoda...........................................................................................................310
18.3 The Lower Groups of Gastropods..............................................................................................................312
18.4 Patellogastropoda (= Docoglossa, Cyclobranchia, Eogastropoda in Part).................................................312
18.4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................312
18.4.2 Phylogeny and Classification.........................................................................................................312
18.4.2.1 Sister Group Relationships...........................................................................................313
18.4.2.2 Outline of Classification...............................................................................................313
18.4.3 Morphology...................................................................................................................................313
18.4.3.1 Shell and Protoconch....................................................................................................313
18.4.3.2 Head-Foot, Mantle, and Operculum.............................................................................315
18.4.3.3 Mantle Cavity...............................................................................................................315
18.4.3.4 Digestive System..........................................................................................................317
18.4.3.5 Reproductive System................................................................................................... 320
18.4.3.6 Renopericardial System............................................................................................... 320
18.4.3.7 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................. 321
18.4.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour................................................................................................. 322
18.4.4.1 Habits and Habitats..................................................................................................... 322
18.4.4.2 Locomotion and Behaviour......................................................................................... 322
18.4.4.3 Life History................................................................................................................. 322
18.4.4.4 Feeding and Diet......................................................................................................... 322
18.4.4.5 Associations................................................................................................................. 323
18.4.5 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 323
18.5 Vetigastropoda........................................................................................................................................... 324
18.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 324
18.5.2 Phylogeny and Classification........................................................................................................ 324
18.5.2.1 Outline of Classification.............................................................................................. 326
18.5.2.2 Deep-Sea Enigmas; The Neomphaloidean and Cocculinoidean Taxa........................ 332
18.5.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................. 333
18.5.3.1 Shell and Protoconch................................................................................................... 333
18.5.3.2 Head-Foot, Mantle, Operculum, and Locomotion...................................................... 337
18.5.3.3 Mantle Cavity.............................................................................................................. 338
18.5.3.4 Digestive System......................................................................................................... 338
18.5.3.5 Reproductive System................................................................................................... 343
18.5.3.6 Renopericardial System............................................................................................... 344
18.5.3.7 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................. 344
18.5.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour................................................................................................. 345
18.5.4.1 Habits and Habitats..................................................................................................... 345
18.5.4.2 Feeding and Diet......................................................................................................... 345
18.5.4.3 Life History................................................................................................................. 346
18.5.4.4 Associations................................................................................................................. 346
18.5.4.5 Behaviour.................................................................................................................... 346
18.5.5 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 346
18.6 Neritimorpha (= Neritopsina).................................................................................................................... 347
18.6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 347
18.6.2 Phylogeny and Classification........................................................................................................ 347
18.6.2.1 Sister Group Relationships.......................................................................................... 349
18.6.2.2 Outline of Classification.............................................................................................. 349
18.6.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................. 350
18.6.3.1 Shell and Protoconch................................................................................................... 350
18.6.3.2 Head-Foot, Mantle, Operculum, and Locomotion.......................................................351
18.6.3.3 Mantle Cavity.............................................................................................................. 353
18.6.3.4 Digestive System......................................................................................................... 354
18.6.3.5 Renopericardial System............................................................................................... 355
18.6.3.6 Reproductive System................................................................................................... 355
18.6.3.7 Nervous System and Sense Organs............................................................................. 360
18.6.4 Biology and Ecology.................................................................................................................... 360
18.6.4.1 Habits and Habitats..................................................................................................... 360
18.6.4.2 Feeding and Diet......................................................................................................... 361
18.6.4.3 Life History................................................................................................................. 361
18.6.4.4 Associations................................................................................................................. 362
18.6.4.5 Behaviour.................................................................................................................... 362
18.6.5 Diversity and Fossil History......................................................................................................... 363
Chapter 19 Gastropoda II – The Caenogastropoda................................................................................................................ 365
19.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 365
19.2 Phylogeny and Classification.................................................................................................................... 365
19.2.1 Sister Group Relationships........................................................................................................... 365
19.2.2 Outline of Classification............................................................................................................... 365
19.3 Morphology............................................................................................................................................... 366
19.3.1 Shell and Protoconch.................................................................................................................... 377
19.3.2 Head-Foot, Mantle, and Operculum............................................................................................ 379
19.3.2.1 Head Structures........................................................................................................... 379
19.3.2.2 The Foot...................................................................................................................... 379
19.3.2.3 The Operculum............................................................................................................ 380
19.3.2.4 Mantle Edge................................................................................................................ 380
19.3.3 Mantle Cavity............................................................................................................................... 380
19.3.4 Digestive System.......................................................................................................................... 381
19.3.5 Renopericardial System............................................................................................................... 394
19.3.6 Reproductive System.................................................................................................................... 394
19.3.6.1 The Female System..................................................................................................... 395
19.3.6.2 The Male System......................................................................................................... 396
19.3.7 Nervous System and Sense Organs..............................................................................................400
19.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour.............................................................................................................. 403
19.4.1 Habits and Habitats...................................................................................................................... 403
19.4.2 Locomotion.................................................................................................................................. 403
19.4.3 Feeding and Diet..........................................................................................................................404
19.4.4 Life History and Growth.............................................................................................................. 405
19.4.4.1 Spawn, Development, and Larvae............................................................................... 405
19.4.5 Associations..................................................................................................................................410
19.4.5.1 The Evolution of Parasitism in Eulimidae....................................................................410
19.4.6 Predators and Defence..................................................................................................................412
19.4.7 Other Behavioural Attributes........................................................................................................412
19.5 Economic and Ecological Values...............................................................................................................412
19.6 Diversity and Fossil History.......................................................................................................................413
19.7 Major Groups within Caenogastropoda.....................................................................................................414
19.7.1 The Architaenioglossans...............................................................................................................414
19.7.1.1 Campanilida.................................................................................................................415
19.7.2 Sorbeoconcha................................................................................................................................415
19.7.2.1 Cerithiimorpha.............................................................................................................415
19.7.2.2 Hypsogastropoda..........................................................................................................416
Chapter 20 Gastropoda III – The Heterobranchia...................................................................................................................419
20.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................419
20.2 Phylogeny and Classification.....................................................................................................................419
20.2.1 Sister Group Relationships........................................................................................................... 421
20.2.2 Chromosome Numbers................................................................................................................. 422
20.3 Morphology............................................................................................................................................... 429
20.3.1 Shell and Operculum.................................................................................................................... 435
20.3.1.1 Shell Structure............................................................................................................. 439
20.3.1.2 Larval or Embryonic Shell.......................................................................................... 439
20.3.1.3 Shell Reduction and Loss............................................................................................ 439
20.3.1.4 Shell Variation.............................................................................................................440
20.3.1.5 Operculum...................................................................................................................440
20.3.2 External Body Morphology.......................................................................................................... 441
20.3.2.1 Head Tentacles............................................................................................................ 441
20.3.2.2 Cephalic (Head) Shield............................................................................................... 442
20.3.2.3 Epithelial Modifications.............................................................................................. 442
20.3.2.4 Oral Veil.......................................................................................................................444
20.3.2.5 The Foot, Pedal Glands, and Parapodia.......................................................................444
20.3.2.6 The Mantle.................................................................................................................. 445
20.3.3 Mantle Cavity and Associated Structures.................................................................................... 447
20.3.3.1 Heterobranch Gills...................................................................................................... 450
20.3.3.2 Opposed Ciliary Ridges (Raphes) and Mantle Tentacles............................................ 451
20.3.3.3 The Hypobranchial Gland........................................................................................... 451
20.3.3.4 The Pigmented Mantle Organ (PMO)......................................................................... 452
20.3.3.5 Other Glands Associated with the Mantle Cavity....................................................... 452
20.3.4 Digestive System.......................................................................................................................... 452
20.3.5 The Renopericardial System........................................................................................................ 472
20.3.6 Nervous System and Sense Organs.............................................................................................. 474
20.3.6.1 Sense Organs............................................................................................................... 477
20.3.7 Reproductive System.................................................................................................................... 479
20.3.7.1 Terminology................................................................................................................ 479
20.3.7.2 The Ovotestis and Gametes......................................................................................... 481
20.3.7.3 The Reproductive System of ‘Lower Heterobranchs’................................................. 482
20.3.7.4 Some Small Euthyneurans Previously Thought to Be Lower Heterobranchs............. 485
20.3.7.5 Euthyneuran Reproductive Systems............................................................................ 486
20.4 Biology, Ecology, and Behaviour.............................................................................................................. 503
20.4.1 Habits and Habitats...................................................................................................................... 503
20.4.2 Locomotion.................................................................................................................................. 503
20.4.3 Food and Feeding......................................................................................................................... 504
20.4.3.1 Herbivory..................................................................................................................... 505
20.4.3.2 Fungivory.................................................................................................................... 505
20.4.3.3 Active Carnivory.......................................................................................................... 505
20.4.3.4 Parasitism.................................................................................................................... 507
20.4.3.5 Suspension Feeding..................................................................................................... 507
20.4.3.6 Coprophagy................................................................................................................. 507
20.4.4 Reproduction, Development, and Growth.................................................................................... 507
20.4.4.1 Self-Fertilisation.......................................................................................................... 508
20.4.4.2 Hypodermic Insemination........................................................................................... 508
20.4.4.3 Aphally........................................................................................................................ 508
20.4.4.4 Asexual Reproduction................................................................................................. 509
20.4.4.5 Life Cycles.................................................................................................................. 509
20.4.4.6 Reproductive Behaviour.............................................................................................. 509
20.4.4.7 Development................................................................................................................ 509
20.4.4.8 Spawn...........................................................................................................................510
20.4.4.9 Larvae and Larval Shells..............................................................................................514
20.4.5 Behaviour..................................................................................................................................... 515
20.4.6 Predation and Defence................................................................................................................. 515
20.4.6.1 The Shell as a Means of Defence................................................................................ 515
20.4.6.2 Mucus...........................................................................................................................516
20.4.6.3 Defence without a Shell...............................................................................................516
20.4.6.4 Use of Nematocysts......................................................................................................517
20.4.6.5 Aposematic (Warning) Colouration and Batesian and Müllerian Mimicry.................518
20.4.6.6 Autotomy......................................................................................................................519
20.4.6.7 Predators of Heterobranchs..........................................................................................519
20.4.7 Associations................................................................................................................................. 520
20.4.8 Economic and Ecological Values................................................................................................. 520
20.5 Diversity and Fossil History...................................................................................................................... 520
20.5.1 Major Groups within the Heterobranchia.................................................................................... 521
20.5.1.1 ‘Lower Heterobranchs’................................................................................................ 521
20.5.1.2 Euthyneura.................................................................................................................. 521
Chapter 21 Molluscan Research – Present and Future Directions......................................................................................... 527
21.1 Molluscan Research Publications.............................................................................................................. 527
21.1.1 Provision of Basic Information.................................................................................................... 527
21.1.1.1 Use of Museum Collections........................................................................................ 529
21.1.1.2 Research Workshops................................................................................................... 529
21.1.1.3 DNA Barcoding........................................................................................................... 529
21.1.1.4 Genetics....................................................................................................................... 529
21.2 Palaeobiology............................................................................................................................................ 530
21.3 Taphonomy.................................................................................................................................................531
21.4 Systematics................................................................................................................................................ 532
21.5 Systematic, Phylogenetic, and Evolutionary Studies................................................................................ 532
21.5.1 Different Datasets......................................................................................................................... 532
21.5.1.1 Molecular Datasets...................................................................................................... 533
21.6 Biogeography............................................................................................................................................ 535
21.7 Discovery................................................................................................................................................... 535
21.8 The Future................................................................................................................................................. 535
21.8.1 Text Mining.................................................................................................................................. 536
21.8.2 New Technology........................................................................................................................... 536
21.8.3 Phylogenetic and Evolutionary Research..................................................................................... 536
21.8.4 Biodiversity.................................................................................................................................. 538
21.8.5 Citizen Science............................................................................................................................. 540
Appendix
Higher Classification of the Extant Classes of Mollusca..................................................................................... 543
References................................................................................................................................................................................. 725
Index...........................................................................................................................................................................................817