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CHAPTER 1
Transboundary Monitoring of International Waters: Critical Questions for Microbial Water Quality
J. B. Rose, E.A. Dreelin, and S. Weisberg
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Across the globe, there are 20 international lakes and 261 international river basins, which are also called watersheds in the US or catchments in Europe. These water resources are shared across political boundaries and include 71 basins in Europe, 60 in Africa, 53 in Asia, and 39 and 38 in North and South America, respectively. All of these basins are shared by two or more countries.
Wolf et al. (1999) have done a superb job in summarizing and updating the international river basins of the world, updated with changing political boundaries http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/register/ register_paper.html#). Some of the largest international river basins are the Niger, Nile, and Zaire in Africa; the Tigris-Euphrates/Shatt al Arab, Indus, Mekong, Ob in Asia; the Danube and Rhine in Europe; and the Amazon in South America (Table 1.1). Flow from these rivers is equal to just below 50% of the total world's water runoff (total of 19, 200 km per day, Shiklomanov, 2000). The largest international lakes are found in Africa, Asia and North America; these include Lake Chad, Lake Victoria, the Caspian Sea and the Great Lakes (Table 1.2). While there are a number of international lakes in Europe, they are all relatively small in size and typically involve two countries.
Perhaps it is the fragmentation of watersheds by states and nations that has led to poor investment in protection of the water quality. A global assessment of water quality has not been undertaken and one can only assume a significant level of contamination exists based on the numbers of waterborne illnesses and the lack of sewage treatment throughout the world. Historically, humans have used the "best quality" water for drinking water supply, thus protection efforts are geared toward drinking water supplies, with little concern shown for receiving water basins and downstream users.
More attention generally has been paid to lakes than river basins. Notable drops in water availability due to water withdrawals and climate change are described for many of the lakes, including Lake Chad and the Aral Sea. Problems with fishing stocks, eutrophication and algal blooms are commonly observed in many lakes across the world. The United Nations has funded a number of programs that address the status of lakes around the world, including in some cases water quality (www.worldlakes.org; http://www.ilec.or.jp/ database /database.html). The water quality variables included most often in monitoring programs were dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen (including nitrite and nitrate). However, very few monitoring programs included any microbiological monitoring. In a few cases in Europe only coliform bacteria were monitored and reported. It is clear that what is needed is a comprehensive database on microbial water quality, trends, and causes of water pollution.
Waterborne diseases include those diseases that historically caused widespread outbreaks and severe health effects such as cholera, typhoid and poliovirus. All of these diseases are associated with exposure to human fecal waste. While these diseases have been eliminated in the developed world, they remain a significant problem globally. Recently, new infectious diseases and outbreaks have been increasing around the world at unprecedented rates (WHO 2007). This increase may be due in part to antibiotic resistance, genetic emergence of new strains of pathogens, and outbreaks of zoonotic diseases (spread from animals to humans) thus humans are a greater risk from polluted water than ever before. By 1970, 39 new diseases had been identified and since 2002 more than 1,100 epidemics have been documented including cholera, polio and Cryptosporidium. Throughout the world, cholera and typhoid are associated with water contamination (Table 1.3) and can be used as an index. While cholera is typically reported as directed by the Global Health Assembly, typhoid is not and thus uncertainty about some estimates hamper the true assessment of the water-health index.
Water pollution remains a critical issue that directly influences global health. Water pollution also affects the scarcity of water given that humans require clean, safe water. Water security, early warning, protection and restoration for desired uses will require significant financial investments. In order to achieve sustainable access to safe water (both in terms of sufficient quantity and quality), local, regional, national and international cooperation will be required. Water shortages will likely impact 2.7 billion people in about 20 years, threatening the global food supply and the economies of the more than 50 countries where water will become scarce (www.worldwatercouncil.org; Gleick, 1993; Shmueli, 1999). Currently, water quality is not adequately addressed in most international water treaties (Shmueli, 1999). However, one example that could be used as a model for other international basins is the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between Canada and the US. Even with this agreement in place, discussion continues on how to better include pathogens and improve assessment of microbial water quality of the ground, surface and coastal systems in the Great Lakes.
1.2 THE GREAT LAKES BASIN
The Great Lakes comprise the largest source of fresh water on the surface of the Earth, holding nearly 84% of freshwater in North America and 20% of the fresh water on the planet (EPA GLNPO 2005). The Great Lakes basin includes Lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, Ontario and Superior and 5 major connecting rivers including the Detroit River, Niagara River, St. Clair River, St. Lawrence River and St. Mary's River (Figure 1.1; GLIN 2006a). Waters of the Great Lakes support many economically important activities including shipping, drinking water, swimming and fishing. The recreational fishery alone generates approximately $5 billion (USD) each year and the lakes provide critical ecosystems and habitat for many valued species.
Although human diseases such as typhoid and cholera are no longer major problems in the Great Lakes basin, waterborne microbial pathogens still warrant considerable attention. Recent drinking water outbreaks in South Bass Island (Lake Erie, Ohio, 2004), Walkerton, Ontario, (2000) and the largest documented outbreak in North America in Milwaukee, WI (1993) illustrate that this water basin is highly vulnerable to contamination and waterborne microbial pathogens still pose a major threat to human health. Most of these pathogens are transmitted by the fecal-to-oral route in which people are exposed to the pathogens when they ingest or come into contact with drinking or recreational water contaminated with human or animal feces. Although attention and management efforts have focused on treating water and wastewater to prevent microbial contamination, human activities, population growth, emerging pathogens, and poor infrastructure continue to contribute to contamination of surface and ground water with microbial pathogens. This is exacerbated by shifts in weather and climate.
In order to fully protect water quality and the health of transboundary waters, common goals, databases and management approaches are needed. Water quality agreements should address management of microbial contamination, and must move beyond the indicator system which is an inadequate measure of risk and leads to poor assessment of needs. Therefore, a system whereby pathogens can be monitored directly in the environment and scientific information can be developed to understand their sources, fate and transport is needed.
In the Great Lakes basin, both the US and Canada have worked together to address and control pollution for more that 100 years (see Chapter 2). In the early 1900s, the International Joint Commission (IJC) supported the largest bacteriological monitoring study ever developed to examine cross-boundary pollution in response to typhoid outbreaks (see Chapter 3). This study was revolutionary in its day and can be used to inform current monitoring programs. The societal changes (travel and tourism) and demographic changes have created new susceptibility to disease (see Chapter 4). Emerging pathogens have caused outbreaks in the basin, such as Cryptosporidium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, E.coli 0157H7 in Walkerton, Ontario and Norovirus and Campylobacter in South Bass Island, Lake Erie Ohio. However, new technologies and approaches (from DNA to satellite imaging) are developing which allow determination of the presence of pathogens and provide information on their fate in the environment. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) is being established world wide and can be used to track harmful algal blooms (see Chapter 5) as well as set up a network of sites for sampling. This system would provide managers with real-time information on rainfall, runoff and contamination and can be used in determining impacts on coastlines and beaches. Finally, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) planning provides a framework for developing a comprehensive plan for monitoring and managing microbial contamination in the Great Lakes basin (see Chapter 6). While the World Health Organization moves forward with Water Safety Plans, that incorporate HACCP principals, there is a need to pull together an approach that allows water quality to be adequately assessed in regard to health benefits and prioritizing investments. This means monitoring with a variety of techniques and use of available data at spatial and temporal scales that are appropriate for addressing water quality and health, which can address the global cycle of water (see Chapter 7).
1.3 MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND THE GREAT LAKES
The Great Lakes basin is home to approximately 30 million people, many of whom drink and recreate in the waters of the basin without any thought to microbial pathogens. However, in the US there has been an increase in the number of disease outbreaks due to waterborne pathogens since the late 1990s. The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that there are 2 million infections in the US every year caused by Giardia and 300,000 caused by Cryptosporidium (CDC 2007). These are but two of many waterborne microbial pathogens that potentially contaminate water. The largest drinking water outbreak in US history occurred in the Great Lakes region (1993 Milwaukee, Wisconsin) where 400,000 people became ill and 100 people died due to the emerging parasite Cryptosporidium (MacKenzie et al 1994). Rainfall and untreated sewage as well as animal wastes were to blame for the contamination of Lake Michigan, the water supply for that city. Because Cryptosporidium is resistant to chlorination, when filtration at the treatment plant failed to provide enough of a barrier, a massive disease outbreak resulted. Outbreaks have also occurred in Canada, most notably the Walkerton, Ontario outbreak in 2000. Seven people died as a result of E. coli O157:H7 contamination of the ground water supply. The water was inadequately disinfected before being distributed to the community for drinking. The water was also contaminated with Campylobacter. The source of these pathogens was animal manure that was spread on a nearby farm in close proximity to the well prior to a large storm event, rainfall provided the needed transport mechanism. Five years later, the community is still suffering chronic symptoms. Finally, in 2004, on South Bass Island, Put-In-Bay in Lake Erie, massive groundwater contamination resulted in thousands of illnesses associated with viruses (norovirus) and bacteria (Campylobacter) as well as unknown agents causing gastrointestinal illness. The rainfall that year was 150% the 50 year average and a wind event lead to hydraulic mixing of sewage and groundwater (Fong et al. 2007).
In addition to contamination of drinking water, microbial pathogens also pose a risk for contact recreation. In 2006, over 3,000 closings or advisories were posted at US Great Lakes beaches due to the presence of pathogens or indicator organisms, an increase of over 10% from 2005 (NRDC 2007). Globally, the cost of human disease caused by sewage pollution of coastal waters is estimated at 4 million lost 'man-years' annually, which is roughly equivalent to an annual economic loss of approximately $16 billion U.S. For one Lake Michigan beach, net economic losses due to beach closures have been estimated to range from $1,274 to $37,030 per day depending value assumptions used (Rabinovici et al. 2004).
1.4 GREAT LAKES MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
1.4.1 Management in the Great Lakes Region There are many players in the Great Lakes with some involvement in management of water and wildlife resources in the basin. The federal governments of Canada and the United States of America (US), eight US states, two Canadian provinces, four regional institutions, approximately 120 Native American authorities, and thousands of local governments have some legal authority or responsibility for ecosystem management in the basin (Hildebrand et al. 2002). Because multiple players are involved in coordinating and planning, there is often confusion among federal and state officials as to which entity bears ultimate responsibility for management (GAO 2003).
There is a long history of cooperation between the US and Canada over management of the Great Lakes basin. In 1909, the two countries signed the Boundary Waters Treaty. The Treaty commits the two countries to protecting and improving boundary waters of the Great Lakes. The Treaty also created the International Joint Commission (IJC), a binational agency charged with resolving disputes between the two countries (see Chapter 2).
The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 was a response to continuing pollution problems in the Great Lakes (Hildebrand et al. 2002). The goal of the Water Quality Agreement was to "restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the waters of the Great Lakes ecosystem." The Water Quality Agreement expanded the role of the IJC to provide technical assistance, coordinate management actions of Canada and the US, and review how well the two countries were implementing the goals of the treaty. The Agreement was amended in 1978, 1983, and 1987; each revision added more focus on achieving water quality objectives. The 1987 Protocol to the Agreement required the two countries to identify Areas of Concern (AOC), areas within the basin that are extremely polluted and likely to impair beneficial uses. The federal governments are required to work with state/provincial and local partners to develop Remedial Action Plans (RAPs) to clean up the AOCs. The IJC produces a biennial report on the progress made under the Agreement. The Water Quality Agreement and Boundary Waters Treaty form the foundation for US and Canada to jointly manage the resources of the Great Lakes (EPA GLNPO 2005). More information on these agreements is provided in Chapter 2.
Several other efforts address management of water and water-related resources in the Great Lakes. In 1955, US and Canada signed the Convention on Great Lakes Fisheries to ensure collaboration and better protection of fisheries. The Convention established the Great Lakes Fisheries Commission (GLFC) to research means to ensure sustainable fisheries, make recommendations to Canada and the US based on research results, and to control the invasive sea lamprey. On the US side, the eight Great Lakes states (Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) signed the Great Lakes Compact in 1955. The purpose of the Compact was to promote integrated planning and management of the basin across the Great Lakes states, to balance competing uses for Great Lakes resources, and to create an intergovernmental agency to promote collaboration. The Compact established the Great Lakes Commission (GLC) to implement the compact on behalf of the states. In 1999, the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario became associate members of the GLC, making the GLC a binational agency (See Chapter 2)
1.4.2 Management Challenges
The many stressors to the system, including ballast water discharges, sewage discharges, and nonpoint source runoff, further complicate management of Great Lakes waters. Many of the effects from these discharges are cumulative over large portions of the lakes and effective management requires consistent protection on both sides of the border.
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Excerpted from "Effective Cross-Border Monitoring Systems for Waterborne Microbial Pathogens"
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