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The text covers all aspects of drawing the human form. An important introductory section deals with methods of drawing and the proper proportioning of the body. Then the author treats the various parts of the body in full detail: head and neck (over 100 pages on facial features, etc.), the trunk (chest, abdomen, vertebral column, breast, pelvis, shoulders, etc.) and the upper and lower limbs and digits. A final discussion takes up the topic of drapery, the main points of support on the body, and various styles of representing the folds and forms of garments.
Three hundred seventy-seven figures, mostly sketches by the author, but including some examples from classical times and famous artists, illustrate the text. These figures show undraped men and women of all ages and types in various positions and movements and from all angles (full front view, profile, three-quarter view, rear view, etc.) so that the coverage is as thorough as possible for the student. Other drawings show and identify muscles and elements of the skeletal system and indicate their relation to surface contours.
A clear and readable account with many helpful suggestions on sketching technique, the book offers a nontechnical, inexpensive home-study course or supplementary text for the beginning artist. Those art students who derive little or no benefit from anatomy courses would do well to study this volume.
Unabridged, unaltered republication of original edition.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780486149226 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Dover Publications |
| Publication date: | 08/22/2012 |
| Series: | Dover Anatomy for Artists |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 384 |
| File size: | 34 MB |
| Note: | This product may take a few minutes to download. |
Read an Excerpt
Figure Drawing
By Richard G. Hatton
Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 1965 Dover Publications, Inc.All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-21377-4
CHAPTER 1
METHOD AND PROPORTION
1. The Study of Form.
JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET said, when asked if an artist should study anatomy, that all knowledge is useful. The questioner had in mind, no doubt, the very frequently expressed opinion that anatomy, and all such-like knowledge, is apt to clog the wheels of the artist's progress. The fear is that the unsophisticated freedom, the "thoughtlessness" of nature will be smothered by palpable study—by book-learning especially. And there are, consequently, many of the artistic fraternity who eschew all such aids, and who point to the long roll of illiterates whose work is immortal. There can be little doubt that this mistrust of knowledge is due to the excess of science in these studies. Some degree of excess there must always be, because all possible demands have to be met, while the artist in his own work can manage to evade what he cannot overcome. Nevertheless, there is often so much science that its application becomes very difficult. The reply of Millet would be truer if it ran—all knowledge is useful if it is usable. What every artist wants is usable knowledge, and of that he will never have any doubts.
Our task in the present case is to find out usable knowledge about the figure, so that when we come to draw it we may be the less likely to fall into error.
Now the form of the figure is revealed by its anatomy, but in order that the facts obtained may be of service to the artist they must be selected from his point of view, and must arise out of his manner of working. In preparing the following pages I have kept this fact constantly before me, and have found it necessary sometimes to suppress information which clearly was usurping a position that belonged to more practical knowledge. For I find, and do not doubt that the experience of all draughtsmen is the same, that one works sometimes "anatomically," sometimes "artistically." When one works anatomically one feels that too much insistence is being placed upon facts which do not apply, and the drawing plainly is getting no nearer being a lively imitation of nature, but more and more an exercise of another kind.
We have, consequently, to base our investigations upon the methods employed by the artist. We have to consider what he sets out to do, and what assistance he wants from us in the execution of his task.
We find the artist's task is twofold. He has to first fix his conception, or idea, of his subject; and he has, in the second place, to technically express his conception.
The conception may be comparatively meagre, or rich, but it is clear that when dealing with the technical part we must assume that the conception is as full and complete as possible. We will not spend words here, then, in pointing out that a shaded drawing indicates an intention to express a fuller conception than a drawing in line would. Obviously, if one goes beyond line, and uses shading, it is because one has more to say—more form, or more delicate form, to exhibit.
Yet although the conception may be rich, and demand all the resource of the painter's craft, the means employed for the representation do not at once leap to the highest level, but proceed from simple to difficult—following that best of laws, that the simple means should be exhausted before the more complex are called forth. We commence our study, therefore, with an examination of the means of expression.
2. Drawing in Line.
IT seems very formal, very didactic, to say that the representation of solid forms in line is based upon the drawing of the cube and the cylinder, and the statement is certainly an exaggeration, but as a practical rule the assertion is true enough. The principle involved is seen in Fig. 1, and briefly is—that a cylinder seen in a foreshortened position is expressed by a curved line, an oval, at either end, and that a cubic form is represented by two lines at an angle, also at either end of it. It will be clear to any one without further explanation that modifications in the form will be followed by modifications in the degree, and kind, of curvature, or angle. However varied the form may be, its expression by line will depend upon the simple law thus indicated. From this law of foreshortening we deduce this axiom—that where two similar lines, as A and B in Fig. 2, occur one beyond the other, the inference is that the smaller (according to perspective) is the more remote and that the surface from A to B recedes. Such a shape as C, if symmetrical side for side, may be a plane receding upwards, or may be a shape seen in its true form, without foreshortening. An addition at the side, as at D, suggests that the form is receding, but only if the bottom line of the addition, d, slopes down. Of course where such is the case the form EF is truer, because the side FF would become shorter than EE. It would often be impossible to tell which end was the nearer without an edge, or side, as shown at H. This edge (H) at once indicates that the smaller end is really the nearer, and that we are looking up at the object. This edge belongs to the cube form—it is the return, or third side, and indicates the nearer end.
The lines by which the shading is produced are as important as the end-lines themselves; indeed, in line-drawing the shading-lines are often the chief exponents of the form.
The application of the principle of the cylinder is seen in Fig. 3. Each part of the body recedes in a certain direction. The near and far ends of each part come, therefore, under the principle, that is, they curve backward, or away from the spectator. The drawing here given is marred by being made to show the application of the rule. Its curves are too regularly circular, and the near and far ends of each part are too equal.
The shading which is done on the principle of the cylinder is of two kinds. It is either made up of strokes side by side, or of strokes crossing. How is the direction of the lines governed? It is difficult and dangerous to give a rule, but this much may be said—that in the single-stroke work each successive stroke seems to be the edge of a new section parallel to the last, and all at right-angles to the direction of the limb. This is illustrated in Fig. 4, where the curvature of the lines varies according to the form to be expressed. It will readily be believed that this method is a dangerous one—a slight misdirection of line, or of curvature, produces false form. But dangers such as these carry with them compensating qualities—directness, and the evidence of good workmanship when things go well. What has one to guard against? I fancy Albert Dürer would have said—making the lines too straight.
If the reader will examine carefully the lines on the engraving by Dürer reproduced (Fig. 6), more particularly in the legs, he will see that the lines are well curved. This curliness of the lines is characteristic of Dürer's work, and indeed of the work of his time, and its effect is to over-model, rather than under-model, the form. Such curly shading is seen over and over again in that work, so that one is tempted to say that they preferred not to make the curve the true curve as produced by the section.
The shading by curved lines, of which we have been treating, is not the only kind. There is the cross-hatched variety. I suppose nothing could seem more merely pedantic, more superfluous than to give any instructions as to the direction the curves should take. For it seems so evident that the directions are chosen by each individual artist differently, as suits his style, his hand, and his knowledge. We may say this, however, that cross-hatching owes its origin to the fact that sometimes we want an edge of shade against light which is sharp in character, sometimes an edge which is soft. Now the little strokes, more or less parallel, terminate against the light with a comblike edge. This is the soft edge. Sometimes it is not soft enough, and we have to continue our strokes in shorter strokes, or dots, so that the tone can be carried less harshly into the light. This method of softening was in vogue among the old woodcut designers, Albert Dürer and Holbein among them. But if we want a sharper, more sudden change from shade to light we can use the strokes so that the side of the first stroke borders the shading. In this way, especially when we allow ourselves lines in more than one direction, we are able to get a great variety of gradation. Fig. 7 merely gives one set of lines; it is evident that another set crossing them would assist much in the expression of the form. For all that, artists will, I think, generally prefer the simpler method.
3. Drawing by Planes.
THE most unkind comment we can make upon a drawing of the figure is that it is "sausagey." We like well-rounded limbs, but we object to any - of their being stuffed, or inflated. Obviously this over-roundness can be corrected by flattening the surface here and there. To flatten the surface is to create planes, and these planes will meet in ridges.
Of course the planes are nothing like so sharp as those shown in Fig. 8, which is drawn to show that the symmetry of the surfaces must be preserved, and that this is done by assuming that they meet in the formal manner there illustrated.
In Fig. 9 is an oblong with a long line across it. This long line, even without any shading, suggests that two surfaces are sloping away from it. In the same diagram is shown the same line converted into shading of a simple character.
In most cases there is but one main ridge down a limb, or down the trunk. That is as much as to say that, as a rule, the surface falls into two main planes. This is further illustrated in Fig. 10, where one plane is shown in light, the other in shade.
4. Drawing by Contour.
THE oldest method of drawing is drawing by contour, or outline. In Fig. 11 we have an illustration of a Greek vase-painting, or rather drawing, for there is no "painting" in these beautiful pieces of work.
In these Greek vase-paintings the drawing is of the highest excellence, and should receive more attention than it does. The form is extremely well and sensitively rendered, and when we consider that with only an outline to work with there is much truth, bone, muscle, tendon, fleshiness, we may well doubt whether, at any subsequent period of artistic history, there has been better drawing. Now this is all contour work. Fig. 12 is from a lekythos in the British Museum. With all the imperfections due to the reproduction it is a very beautiful drawing. The anatomical form is perfect, and even with the small part represented the action is easy and harmonious, while there is a fleshiness and elasticity which is the despair of the draughtsman of to-day. There is, it must be feared, no technical secret which we can learn for such work as this. It seems to be merely the record of great delight in the human form, in its mechanism, and its harmonious properties. Like Nature herself, the draughtsmanship seems to care nothing for the show of cleverness, or of knowledge, but to be solely the reflection of unalloyed delight in the subject portrayed.
No draughtsman will, however, doubt that the Greek artist possessed great knowledge, and that because he possessed great knowledge he worked with the ease his drawings exhibit. No one will pretend that this drawing is drawn by a man who cares nothing for the form, and who tries to forget any fact about it he may happen to observe, or that he made this drawing from a model, posed for the purpose, and for evermore forgotten. There was then, as there always must be, a body of knowledge diffused through the artistic fraternity, kept fresh and vital by a zeal for their craft and an enthusiasm for nature.
In all periods we find this contour-drawing, in all periods knowledge. Sometimes the knowledge is not first-hand. Indeed, if we could look into those old Greek workshops we should probably find the master handing down to his apprentice the knowledge he himself similarly acquired. The early Greek vase-painting was surely traditional, else how comes it that the same characteristics so constantly recur? The Greek artists of the best period inherited a body of tradition which they sifted and developed as served their purpose. When, however, he who inherits does not freshen his knowledge at the fountain of nature, it will flag, grow awry, become conventional, as we say. Even then it may be a most powerful agent of expression, for we must not lose sight of the great fact that drawing is, after all, only a means to an end. It is not art, though the great means by which art achieves its labours. In Fig. 13, for instance, we have an example of thirteenth-century drawing. It represents nature rather than imitates it. It is conventional; but note this (which is true of all conventional drawing), it is true in the great facts, if false in the little ones. The hands particularly are good. It is possible, therefore, for a drawing to be much better in its detail, and yet not only worse on the whole, but less useful—the production of a more learned but a less sane personage than he who drew these crude Gothic figures. And such a failure all the more enforces the lesson that the contourist must be careful, above all, of his main form, his big planes.
5. Drawing in Thick Lines.
SOMETIMES our work demands the employment of a thick line, and we can have no better exercise for our power of managing outline. We have, in the first place, to determine whether we are allowed to make our lines thick and thin as we like, or whether we must keep to one regular thickness. Even in the illustrations (woodcuts) to the 'Dream of Poliphilus,' in which the line is practically of one thickness throughout, there continually occur slender lines, and all the lines are more or less jagged, as may be expected in woodcuts. As a rule, in all such work the line round the figure is very bold. There is a reason for this, and the reason is that the thick line concentrates the broad light of the figure —hems it in. A form surrounded by a thick line is more readily regarded as modelled than one surrounded by a thin line. This is because the thick lines, being very evident, are easily associated with one another—will associate themselves, in fact—and the form between seems to be bumped up or modelled. It is of course only when the outline is at all curved that this suggestion of modelling is produced. The indentations in the form no doubt suggest channels, or depressions, in the surface, but it would be of little service to us to enter upon a detailed inquiry into such a matter.
A comparison of the three illustrations, Figs. 14, 15, and 16, will serve to show what approximation to the more detailed rendering is obtainable by the use of thick lines. Sometimes one finds the thick line is wholly outside the form, surrounding it. Rarely, if ever, is the thick line within the form, except on the shadow-side. In Fig. 17 the outline down the shadow-side (the left) is within the form, while on the light-side it is on the background, and does not invade the form. This seems indeed to be the only serviceable rule one can make —perhaps no rule at all should be made.
6. Drawing based upon Rounded Forms.
IF you draw by outline you must trust almost to luck for your modelling. If you begin to model you may either regard the form as built up mainly of flat surfaces (planes), or you may regard it as composed of rounded forms one against the other. Both of these predilections are, in a measure, wrong, as well as right; the planes make too many sharp edges, the rounded masses make none at all. One would say, side with truth, not with imaginary standards, especially as they seem to be proving false. But the draughtsman must begin somewhere. Moreover, while he is seeking truth he must needs make use of whatever will help him to gain it. Our progress in drawing, at all events, is through error to truth —and to us who have not yet done our task, our error is only error because it is not all the truth, not because it is no part of truth at all.
By a rounded form is here meant a form which mounts up, dome-wise, as illustrated in Fig. 19. Such eminences are of any kind, but the treatment is the same. It will be seen that by means of the curved lines any section can be suggested. Outline work, such as that illustrated in Fig. 18, depends largely on the principle shown in Fig. 19. Instead of different series of curved lines round about each mound of the form there is only the outermost. All the little curved lines upon the face are the borders, or parts of the borders, of mounds, which would, in ordinary cases, be shaded more completely by parallel curves. In order, therefore, to correctly draw such an outline as is required in this fine portrait of Mantegna, one has to be capable of that roundabout kind of shading which Fig. 19 illustrates.
In the Mantegna portrait the shading is achieved by a different process. Two extra blocks are used, and two additional tints of colour obtained. On these colour-blocks are engraved lines which print white, and serve as high lights. It will be seen that these white lines are curved, just in the same way as the shading-lines of Fig. 19. The colour of the tones in the original of the portrait is a fine greenish-grey.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Figure Drawing by Richard G. Hatton. Copyright © 1965 Dover Publications, Inc.. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc..
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Table of Contents
METHOD AND PROPORTION1. The Study of Form
2. Drawing in Line
3. Drawing by Planes
4. Drawing by Contour
5. Drawing in Thick Lines
6. Drawing based upon Rounded Forms
7. Drawing with Colour
8. Some Hints on Drawing the Figure from the Model
9. The Proportions of the Figure
THE HEAD AND NECK
10. The First Lines of the Front View
11. The Head in Full View ; its Chief Lines
12. The Head in Full View ; Further Consideration of the General Form
13. The Head in Profile
14. The Head in Three-quarter View
15. The Proportions of the Head
16. The Proportions of the Face
17. The Form of the Cranium
18. The Bony Structure of the Face
19. The Zygomatic Arch
20. The Influence of the Bones upon the Form of the Head
21. The Muscles of the Face
22. The Eye and its Neighbourhood
23. The Nose
24. The Mouth and Chin
25. The Ear
26. The Wrinkles of the Face
27. Facial Expression
28. The Bones of the Neck
29. The Sterno-cleido-mastoideus
30. The Throat
31. Some Subordinate Muscles of the Neck
32. The Trapezius Muscle
33. Proportions of the Neck and Shoulders to the Head
34. The Form of the Neck
35. The Head and Neck of a Child
THE TRUNK
36. Chief Characteristics
37. The Bony Mass of the Chest-the Thorax
38. The Pectoral Muscles
39. The Chest
40. The Breast
41. The Pose based upon the Pelvis
42. The Pelvis
43. The External Oblique and Rectus Abdominis Muscles
44. The Abdomen
45. The Abdomen in Woman
46. The Whole Trunk in Woman. Front View
47. The Whole Trunk in Man. Front View
48. The Vertebral Column
49. The Range of Movement in the Vertebral Column
50. "The Erector Spinæ And Sacro-lumbalis Muscles, and their Effect on the Sacrum"
51. The Latissimus Dorsi Muscle
52. The Shoulder-blade and Shoulder
53. Some General Remarks upon the Back
54. The Proportions of the Trunk
THE UPPER LIMB
55. The First Lines in a Drawing of the Arm
56. The Bones of the Upper Limb
57. The Triceps Muscle
58. "The Brachialis Anticus, Coraco-brachialis, and Biceps Cubiti Muscles"
59. The Order of Arrangement of the Muscles about the Arm-pit
60. The Muscles of the Fore-arm
61. General Characteristics of the Arm
62. Some Further Instances of Form in the Arm
63. Movements of the Wrist and Hand
64. Details of the Form of the Wrist
65. Tendons at the Wrist
66. The Hand
67. The Form of the Fingers
68. The Thumb
69. The Proportions of the Upper Limb
THE LOWER LIMB
70. The Bones of the Hip and Lower Limb
71. The Muscles of the Lower Limb
72. Remarks upon the Muscles of the Lower Limb
73. The Hip
74. The Thigh
75. The Knee
76. Drawing the Leg
77. The Ankle and Foot
78. General Remarks upon the Lower Limb
79. The Effect of Gravitation on the Flesh
80. Obliquity of Certain Details of Form
81. Pose and Gesture
82. The Gracefulness of Woman
83. The Hair
DRAPERY
84. Points and Surfaces of Support
85. The Summits or Cords of the Drapery
86. Various Kinds of Drapery