Table of Contents
Introduction 6
1 Ancestors and Evolution 8
1.1 Evolutionary tree
1.2 Theropods
1.3 Early birds
1.4 Lost oddities
1.5 Convergent evolution
1.6 Evolution today
2 The Skeleton 28
2.1 The bird skeleton
2.2 Skull
2.3 Wing bones
2.4 Leg and foot bones
2.5 Skeletal variation
2.6 Bones under the microscope
3 The Muscles 44
3.1 Bird musculature
3.2 Muscles of the head and neck
3.3 Flight muscles
3.4 Lower limbs
3.5 Other muscles
3.6 Muscle microstructure and function
4 The Nervous System 62
4.1 The bird nervous system
4.2 Brains: size and intelligence
4.3 Bird brain structures and regions
4.4 Comparing brains
4.5 The peripheral nervous system
4.6 Nerves and neurons
5 The Senses 80
5.1 Eye anatomy
5.2 Variations in avian eyes
5.3 Ears and hearing
5.4 Smell and taste
5.5 Skin anatomy and touch
5.6 Extra senses
6 The Circulatory System 96
6.1 The bird circulatory system
6.2 The bird heart
6.3 Blood vessels
6.4 Composition of blood
6.5 Hormones and glands
6.6 The lymphatic and immune systems
7 The Respiratory System 110
7.1 The bird respiratory system
7.2 Lung anatomy
7.3 The air sacs
7.4 Vocal apparatus
7.5 Gas exchange
7.6 Adaptations and specializations
8 The Digestive System 126
8.l The bird's digestive system
8.2 Food processing through the tract
8.3 Bill and tongue anatomy
8.4 Other dietary adaptations
8.5 Pellets
8.6 Kidneys and other waterworks
9 The Reproductive System 144
9.1 Male and female reproductive anatomy
9.2 Hormones and breeding biology
9.3 Mating and conception
9.4 Forming and laying eggs
9.5 Structure of a bird's egg
9.6 Variations in eggs and egg care
10 Embryonic Development 166
10.1 Early development in the egg
10.2 Later development in the egg
10.3 Developmental problems
10.4 Incubation and hatching
10.5 Altricial and precocial chicks
10.6 Specialized chick anatomy
11 Feathers and Skin 182
11.1 Feather tracts
11.2 Feather types
11.3 Feather structure
11.4 Bare parts and skin
11.5 Molt
11.6 Feather care
12 Pigmentation, Pattern, and Colors 198
12.1 Colors in the bird world
12.2 Pigmentation types and formation
12.3 Structural colors
12.4 Abnormal colors
12.5 Camouflage and illusion
12.6 Bare part colors
Glossary 216
Index 218
Photo credits 224
