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CHAPTER 1
MY FAMILY AND ANCESTRY
My brother, lawrence, often referred to as Bubba, because I couldn't pronounce "brother" as a small child, was born five years before me. He and I were shaped by the stories that were passed down about our great-grandparents, our grandparents, and our parents.
One of the interesting familial characteristics for me and for Bubba was our mixed racial heritage. It was a topic to which we often returned throughout our lives. Bubba, in particular, was adamant that there was only one race — human. He was extraordinarily proud of his family, which included two young girls from China who had been adopted by his son and daughter-in-law.
Bubba could never understand why any ethnic group self-identified as Italian American, Chinese American, or African American. Growing up, Bubba recalled: "We were just kids. ... It was not like it is now. ... People are so worried about what background they came from that it is almost self-segregation." We often teased each other about having such a mixed racial background that we were like "mongrel dogs."
THE MATERNAL SIDE OF MY FAMILY
My great-grandfather by blood and Bubba's through family relationship was Jewish. (Bubba had a different birth mother than I.) His name was James Abrams and he was born on July 4, 1843, in South Carolina. Bubba often talked about a picture of Ole Man Abrams, as he was called, in which he has a big white beard and looked just as Jewish as he could be.
Ole Man Abrams married a woman named Louvenia Kidd in 1878 in Shelby, Alabama. We assumed that she was black. James and Venia, as she was called in some records, had eleven children, one of whom was my grandmother, Tina Abrams (Heath and later Lassley). Bubba and I both thought it was unusual for a Jewish man to marry a black woman, but according to Bubba's research, there was a significant number of cases where Jewish people would leave their clans and marry outsiders.
Late in life, Ole Man Abrams came to Minneapolis to live with his daughter, my grandmother Tina. Bubba recalled Abrams sitting on the front porch cussing in Yiddish at Jewish passersby. While the north side of Minneapolis in those years had a large Jewish community, it was clear that Ole Man Abrams had no interest in seeking out others of his ethnic background. He died on October 3, 1930, in Minneapolis. I can remember, at six years old, his death and funeral, and the coffin being at the house. A cousin and I peeked, and could barely see in the coffin — but there he was, with a long white beard and long white hair.
Back in Alabama, my grandma Tina had been married when she was very young to a much older black man, Adolphus Heath. We referred to him variously as Mr. Heath or Ole Man Heath. Census records reveal that Tina was born in 1884, while Mr. Heath was born around 1855, making him nearly thirty years her senior. Tina had five children with Mr. Heath. She was seventeen years old when she gave birth to her firstborn, Allie, my mother. According to what Bubba and I had been told, Mr. Heath had a big barn, a beautiful horse, and a fancy carriage. Ma talked about Ole Man Heath hitching up his horse and buggy, and riding up and down the street, just as proud as could be. Ole Man Heath had divorced his first wife and had married Tina when she was fourteen or fifteen. Apparently, his first wife subsequently burned their barn down, twice. Years later, my mother recounted: "That ole heifer came in there 'again' and burnt that barn down."
Several members of my family were rebels, and Grandma Tina was certainly one of those. Even though Mr. Heath was the head of household, she defied him and took her oldest child, my mother Allie, and left Alabama for the North. They eventually ended up in Minneapolis.
THE PATERNAL SIDE OF MY FAMILY
John A. Brown, Bubba's and my father, was a man of few words and told us little about the family's past. He had to be pressed to share any details about his family or our history. I sometimes wondered if he felt some shame about the role that slavery had played in his and our past.
Dad once shared with us that his father, Albert J. Brown, was the product of a master-slave relationship. In family documents, Albert is listed as a carpenter, indicating he was "skilled." The 1900 census reveals that he was born around 1844.
Dad also told Bubba and me that his mother was a Native American woman with long black hair. Her name in family and census records was Eugenia. Census data indicate that she was born around 1855.
Based on what our father had told us, Bubba and I never doubted that Eugenia was Native American. We had no idea what tribe our grandmother came from, but we were told that she lived for some time in Jenifer, Alabama, and ended up in Talladega, Alabama. Both Jenifer and Talladega are located in Talladega County. The name "Talladega" derives from a Native American (Creek) word meaning "border town." We just assumed that our grandmother was a Native American from that area.
My mother, Allie, knew of John's family in Talladega. I recall her telling me: "The Browns lived in a big white house. I remember seeing this Indian woman sitting out there combing this coal black hair and rolling it up in a great big bun and pinning it up on her head."
During the years that I was a graduate student at Ohio State University, I was amused by the number of times that I was approached by students from India, who looked at my straight black hair and slightly hooked nose and inquired if I was Indian. I would laugh and say, "Yes, but not the kind of Indian you're thinking of. I am partly Native American Indian."
My wife, Marsha, trying to track down my roots, convinced me to take a DNA test to settle the issue of my heritage. The test showed my ancestry to be 58 percent Sub-Saharan African and 41 percent European (overwhelmingly from Great Britain) — but no part Native American. The DNA results largely explain my father's fair complexion and my straight hair. I was surprised to get the news and still do not absolutely believe the test — after all, my dad said his mother was Native American, so it's hard to believe that what he said was not true. As I was later to find out, however, the claim to have an ancestor who was Native American is common in many African American families.
In "High Cheekbones and Straight Black Hair," Harvard Professor Henry Louis Gates Jr. notes that it is quite common for African American families to claim that they are descended from Native Americans. Gates quotes Nina Jablonski, an anthropologist, about why African Americans likely have this tendency: "Everyone wants to feel good about their ancestors. Having a Native American in one's background is ennobling and elevating, but having physical traits associated with European subjugation is not." The Native American has long been romanticized as the "noble savage," while black Americans have been cast as the "ignoble savage."
The few other details that Bubba and I knew about our father's family background were that Dad was the youngest of nine children, and was the tallest and the fairest. Most of the other children were much shorter and were more brown skinned or had light brown skin. But Dad was fair, and had straighter hair than the others.
MY FATHER, JOHN A. BROWN
Dad was born on September 13, 1892, in Talladega, Alabama.
After finishing high school, he attended Talladega College for one year. Talladega College is Alabama's oldest private historically black college and was founded to provide a school for the children of former slaves. Perhaps his going to college, unusual for most blacks at that time, indicates the prominence of the Brown family or that the original "master" had provided resources for his offspring.
Dad enlisted in the US Army on April 27, 1918, in Talladega at the age of twenty-five and was discharged approximately eight months later on December 24, 1918, shortly after World War I had ended in November. He did not serve overseas. His discharge from the military lists his occupation as "farmer."
Dad returned to Talladega after his military service. He was not much of a talker, but he occasionally told us stories that would resonate for Bubba and me for the rest of our lives. Perhaps the most memorable was the one that led to his leaving Talladega. Dad told us of going into a hat shop to try on a hat. He decided that he didn't like it or it was too big. Anyway, he put it back on the rack, but the owner said, "Now, John Brown, you know better than that. When you try on a hat, you just bought it."
Dad said, "But I don't want the hat."
"Well, it makes no difference. You now got yourself a hat."
When my dad refused to buy it, the owner called the sheriff, who came down and had a talk with young John Brown. Dad insisted that he didn't want the hat — that it just didn't fit right.
The sheriff finally said, "Okay, but don't let it happen again." That was when Dad decided that he was going to get out of Alabama.
At that time in the South, blacks like my father were denied privileges allowed to whites of any socioeconomic level. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., who would one day be the Commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron and who lived at Tuskegee Institute as a boy in the early 1920s when his father was a faculty member there, recounted in his autobiography that there was one store in Montgomery, Alabama, that actually "bent the segregation laws and let some of the Tuskegee faculty shop with a special degree of freedom from insult." He and his family chose not to shop there, but he became painfully aware of the rigid segregation laws of Alabama through experiences like this.
Pulitzer Prize–winning author Isabel Wilkerson, in The Warmth of Other Suns, documents how Jim Crow laws persisted for all blacks, even those who were well educated, long after my father had left the South. She describes a black physician in Louisiana in the 1940s who could not try on suits in a department store. Instead of suffering that humiliation, he would send his wife into the store, while he sat in the car waiting for her to bring several suits for him to inspect. He would tell her which ones to buy. Traditions such as this persisted well into the 1960s. Young colored women, for example, could not try on hats in department stores in Atlanta at that time.
So in 1919, my dad was certainly not allowed to try on a hat and then refuse to buy it. He faced a choice, as did nearly every black family in the South until the end of the 1970s: Stay in a Jim Crow caste system "as hard and unyielding as the red Georgia clay" or migrate to the North.
The reasons for leaving were quite clear. For some, the sharecropper system seemed remarkably similar to slavery. The sharecropper, a tenant on the plantation owner's land, had to take the planter's word at "settlement" time that he was credited fairly when the crops were sold. By the time the planter subtracted the "seed, the fertilizer, and the clothes and food — from what the sharecropper had earned from his share of the harvest, there was usually nothing coming to the sharecropper at settlement." Many sharecroppers ended up in even deeper debt to the owner.
There were various other reasons blacks in the South wanted to leave. There were "typists wanting to work in an office. Yard boys scared that a single gesture near the planter's wife could leave them hanging from an oak tree." The choice of picking up and leaving had to be difficult, but by the 1970s, "nearly half of all black Americans — some forty-seven percent — would be living outside the South, compared to ten percent" when, what historians would later call the Great Migration, began.
Dad left Alabama to go work for a man in Michigan. This man, formerly from Alabama himself, had told Dad that if he ever wanted a job, he would have one for him in the lumber industry. Dad ended up in Manistee, Michigan, home to a booming lumber industry in the 1880s and continuing into the twentieth century. Although many Americans probably think of African Americans living in urban centers like Detroit, it was not unusual to find pockets of African Americans in rural Michigan. The Manistee Forest was a huge source of lumber. "There was actually a black logging company that employed fair-complected African Americans." There was certainly a lure to the area for those who believed that they could make money as lumbermen.
After Dad left Alabama for Michigan, he sent a letter back to folks in Talladega telling them that there were jobs in Michigan and that he was coming back with tickets and money for those who wanted to relocate. Dad's actions were a real economic threat to the ruling class in the South. The planters preferred the Negro sharecroppers to white labor on the plantations, because of "the inability of the Negro to make or enforce demands for a just statement or any statement at all. He may hope for protection, justice, honesty from his landlord but he cannot demand them."
Dad went back twice to take Alabama blacks up to Michigan. He had the conductor stop the train outside of Talladega, where he would pick the people up, and they would all travel back to Michigan. Bringing blacks out of Alabama to the North as Dad had done was fraught with risk. In Alabama, there were so many blacks leaving "that the state began making anyone caught enticing blacks away — labor agents, as they were called — pay an annual license fee of $750 'in every county in which he operates or solicits emigrants' or be 'fined as much as $500 and sentenced to a year's hard labor.'"
After the first time that Dad returned for laborers, the sheriff said that if he ever came back to town, he'd shoot him. The consequences for blacks that challenged white Southerners at this time were severe. "Across the South, someone was hanged or burned alive every four days from 1889 to 1929." Crimes included making "boastful remarks," "trying to act like a white person," or insulting a white person. Yet Dad returned. His courage and determination were sources of real pride for Bubba and me.
Dad moved on to Minnesota sometime in 1919; it is not clear exactly when he arrived or even why he journeyed so much farther north than most other migrants. Most blacks followed three main tributaries out of the South, often determined by the railroad and bus paths of the day. There was the coastal route to cities like New York and Boston; the central route to cities like Detroit, Chicago, and Cleveland; and a later route to the West Coast. There were very few African Americans who migrated as far north as Minneapolis in those years. Yet our dad was never daunted by a challenge.
Dad was part of a movement, generally described as beginning around 1915, which spanned five decades. "The period between World Wars I and II was one of unprecedented changes for the Negro population. During this period there occurred the greatest single mass migration in American history. While the Negro population in the North was only 1,578,336 at the time of the 1910 census, the 1940 census showed 2,960,899 living there." The overall population of African Americans in the North had almost doubled in only thirty years. Our dad (and both his future wives, Bubba's mother and my mother) was part of this great migration.
THE IMPORTANCE OF WORK IN THE LIFE OF JOHN BROWN
One of Dad's earliest jobs in Minneapolis was as a fire knocker on the railroad. The trains ran by burning coal. The coal had rock and other materials in it that didn't burn. These cinders had to be taken out of the train after the firebox had cooled. When the trains came in after a long run, they were taken to the "round house," where Dad and the other fire knockers went down under the train, opened the firebox, and took all the slag and cinders out.
The business with which both Bubba and I most associate our father, however, was Archer Daniels, which had begun in Minneapolis as Archer Daniels Linseed Company in 1902. It was known after 1923 as Archer Daniels Midland, currently a global food-processing corporation.
Dad began as a pressman in the linseed oil factory. I can remember so well that Dad reeked of linseed oil from working that press. In this operation, the workers would put linseed between two burlap sacks and then press it with steam. This helped extract the oil from the seed. The process was scorching hot, so the workers wore shorts and were often bare-chested while they worked.
Dad worked twelve-hour shifts and was glad to have the job. He was well respected at work. In Bubba's words, Dad "was very smart. Very quiet, but very smart. Everybody liked him. They thought he could walk on water. He never cussed, was always at work — he never took a vacation because he thought the guys might realize that they could run the place without him."
Dad eventually became a supervisor after a strike occurred at the company during which he was thrust into the limelight. In the 1930s, labor unions were very popular and strove to change work practices, such as reducing the long work hours of its members. Dad consciously decided not to join the union forces, for two primary reasons. First, he attended a union meeting and determined he did not respect its leaders. He, therefore, could not follow them. He also believed he had the best job of anybody that he knew and had some status among the laborers with whom he worked.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "Keep Your Airspeed Up"
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