Table of Contents
Foreword v
Acknowledgements vii
Case List xiii
List of Abbreviations xxiii
1 Introduction 1
I Equality: A Fundamental Principle Based on not so Stable Fundaments 2
II The Need for Reconceptualising Equality Law or the Rationalist Human Rights Paradigm 6
III EU Law as the Laboratory of Constitutional Theory 8
IV The Institutional Choice Approach to EU Equality Law 12
2 The Notion of Equality 17
I Why Equality? 17
A Reasons for Having the Concept of Equality 18
i Interpersonal Explanations 18
ii Social Contract Basis 20
iii Right to Treatment as an Equal 22
iv Libertarianist Critique 23
v Résumé 26
B Reasons for Equality as a Legal Concept 27
II What Kind of Equality? 30
A From Formal to Substantive Equality 30
B The Diversity of Substantive Equality 34
C Extension and Dilution 39
III The Relationship of Equality and Non-discrimination 40
3 Equality Testing: Different Kinds of Scrutiny 47
I Three Standards of Scrutiny 49
A EU Equality Law 49
i Low Scrutiny 50
ii Strict Scrutiny 51
iii Intermediate Scrutiny 53
B German Equality Law 55
i The Arbitrariness Formula 55
ii The New Formula 56
iii Something in Between 58
C The Doctrinal Discourse on Equality 60
i Leibholz and Judicial Restraint 60
ii Stein and Balancing 61
iii Huster and the Internal-External Aims Divide 63
II Traditional Interpretive Explanation 65
A Transposing the Account of German Equality Adjudication 65
B Dismantling the Account 68
III Changing Perspectives: A Comparative Institutional Explanation 71
A An Introduction into Comparative Institutional Analysis 71
B Comparative Institutional Analysis and Equality Reasoning 74
C Matching Theory with Facts 79
IV Conclusion 84
4 Differential Treatment of EU Citizens 86
I Non-discrimination on Grounds of Nationality: A Leitmotiv of the TFEU 86
II Article 18(1) TFEU: A Relative Right to Equal Treatment 87
III Challenges to the Equal Treatment of EU Citizens 91
A Enjoyment of Social Benefits in Host Member States 91
i The Expansive Phase 91
ii Defining the Limits to Social Benefits for Nationals of Other Member States 92
a The Interim Phase 93
b Setting out the Approach: Dano 94
c Confirming the Approach: Alimanovic and Garcia-Nieto 97
B Voting Rights in National Elections 100
i A Feasible Scenario before the European Court of Justice 101
ii Declining or Asserting Jurisdiction? 103
iii Justificatory Burdens 107
C The EU's Principle of Non-discrimination on Grounds of Nationality versus the Existence of the State 108
IV Equal Treatment of EU Citizens: An Institutional Choice Reconstruction 109
A Representation of Interests in a Supranational Setting 109
B Comparative Institutional Analysis of Social Benefits Adjudication 112
C Comparative Institutional Analysis of National Electoral Laws 115
V Conclusion 117
5 Reverse Discrimination 119
I Reverse Discrimination: Its Definition, Egalitarian Tune and Relevance 119
A Definition and Characteristics 119
B Reverse Discrimination: When Egalitarian and Institutional Concerns Meet 126
II The European Court of Justice's Handling of Reverse Discrimination 129
A The Exclusionary Approach 130
B The Inclusionary Approach 135
i The Abstract Link 136
ii Stressing the Facts 137
iii Reinterpreting the Rule 142
a Excursus: Ruiz Zambrano and its Follow-up Cases 146
C The Procedural Approach 149
D Outlook 152
III The Fundamental Boundaries Concern-or Institutional Choice in the Supranational Context 152
A Guimont's Underlying Institutional Choices 153
B The Inclusionary and Exclusionary Approach in Terms of Institutional Choice 155
6 Affirmative Action for Women 167
I The European Union Jurisprudence 171
A Kalanke and the Restrictive Approach 172
B Marschall, Badeck and Greater Openness towards Affirmative Action 175
C Abrahamsson and Balancing the Court's Adjudication 180
D Synthesis 183
II The American Experience 184
A Race Conscious Affirmative Action 186
i Race Conscious Affirmative Action in Education 186
ii Race Conscious Affirmative Action in Public Employment and Government Contracting 191
B Gender Conscious Affirmative Action 194
C The Mediating Principle in United States Affirmative Action Case Law 196
III Translating the American Experience to the European Debate 201
A The Mediating Principle in European Union Affirmative Action Case Law 201
B Affirmative versus Transformative 203
IV Comparative Institutional Analysis of Affirmative Action 205
A Ely's Influence 206
B The Assessment 209
7 Conclusion 214
I Breaking down the Divides 214
II The Four Conceivable Relations between Equality Review and Institutional Choice 217
A Business as Usual 218
B Rejection 219
C Embrace 221
D Adaptation 224
i First Order-Second Order Questions 225
ii Combined Review of the Subjects and Objects of Comparison 227
III More Coherence through Doctrinal Adaptation 230
IV Summary of the Thesis in Eight Points 231
Bibliography 233
Index 249
