RF Positioning: Fundamentals, Applications, and Tools

by Rafael Saraiva Campos

Overview

This resource presents readers with a comprehensive view of radio-frequency (RF) positioning. The book is organized to allow readers to progress at a fast pace, from the fundamentals of RF positoining to the use of advanced tools such as artificial intelligence algorithms and application development environments. The first part of the book covers the fundamentals of RF localization. The second part addresses the applications of those fundamentals in several types of wireless networks and technologies such as cellular networks, WI-FI, Bluetooth, sensor networks, ultrawideband, and global navigation satellite systems. The book concludes by discussing several tools that enable rapid development of positioning applications for mobile devices.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781608078165
Publisher:	Artech House, Incorporated
Publication date:	06/30/2015
Pages:	320
Product dimensions:	7.20(w) x 10.20(h) x 1.00(d)

Table of Contents

Preface xi

Chapter 1 Introduction to RF Positioning Systems 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Some Basic Terminology 4

1.2.1 Location or Position 4

1.2.2 Positioning 4

1.2.3 Target Mobile Station 4

1.2.4 Reference or Anchor Station 4

1.2.5 Radio Determination 5

1.2.6 Line-of-Position 5

1.2.7 Accuracy 5

1.2.8 Precision 5

1.3 A Brief History of RF Positioning 7

1.3.1 Telefunken Kompass Sender 7

1.3.2 Orfordness Rotating Beacon 8

1.3.3 Sonne 9

1.3.4 Gee 11

1.3.5 Oboe 12

1.3.6 Gee-H 13

1.3.7 Loran-A 14

1.3.8 VOR/DME 14

1.3.9 Loran-C 15

1.3.10 GNSS 15

1.3.11 Positioning in Cellular, Wi-Fi, and Sensor Networks 15

1.3.12 eLoran 16

1.4 RF Positioning Taxonomy 16

1.4.1 Classification According to the Position Calculation Technique 16

1.4.2 Classification According to the MS Participation in the Position Calculation 22

1.4.3 Classification According to Minimum Number of Reference Stations Required for Position Calculation 23

1.5 RF Positioning Technical Recommendations and Regulatory Demands 24

1.5.1 Locating Ships and Aircraft in Distress Conditions 24

1.5.2 Emergency Call Locating in Cellular Networks 24

1.6 Summary 26

References 27

Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Triangulation-Based Positioning 31

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 Multilateration 31

2.2.1 Circular Multilateration 31

2.2.2 Hyperbolic Multilateration 43

2.3 Multiangulation 51

2.4 Summary 52

References 53

Chapter 3 Fundamentals of TOA, RSS, and AOA Estimation 55

3.1 Basic Principles 55

3.2 TOA Estimation 55

3.2.1 TOA Estimation Using Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 57

3.2.2 TOA Estimation Using Matched Filters 60

3.2.3 Tracking TOA 62

3.3 TDOA Estimation S3

3.4 RSS Estimation 63

3.4.1 AGC 64

3.4.2 RSS Estimation Using Matched Filters 65

3.5 AOA Estimation 66

3.5.1 Basic Principles 66

3.5.2 Uniform Linear Array 69

3.6 Some Limits on the Attainable Estimates 70

3.6.1 CRLB on Distance Estimates by Means of TOA 70

3.6.2 CRLB on Distance Estimates by Means of RSS 72

3.6.3 CRLB on Angle Estimates by Means of AOA 74

3.7 Summary 75

References 75

Chapter 4 Fundamentals of RF Fingerprinting 79

4.1 Introduction 79

4.2 Radio-Frequency Fingerprints 81

4.3 Correlation Database 83

4.3.1 CDB Structure 83

4.3.2 CDBs Built from Field Measurements 84

4.3.3 CDBs Built from Propagation Modeling 85

4.3.4 Mixing Predicted and Measured Values 87

4.3.5 CDB Tuning 88

4.4 Pattern Matching of RF Fingerprints 89

4.4.1 Distance in N-Dimensional RSS Space 90

4.4.2 Rank Correlation Coefficient 94

4.5 Search Space Reduction 97 4.5.1 CDB Filtering 97

4.6 Location Estimates Averages 102

4.6.1 KNNs 103

4.6.2 Moving Average Filter 103

4.7 Experimental Evaluations 103

4.7.1 Outdoor Test in a GSM Cellular Network 104

4.7.2 Indoor Test in Wi-Fi Networks 105

4.8 Summary 108

References 109

Chapter 5 Positioning in Cellular Networks 113

5.1 Introduction 113

5.1.1 Brief Review of Cellular Technologies Evolution, from 2G to 4G 113

5.1.2 3GPP Technical Specifications Organization 117

5.2 Cellular Network Intrinsic Positioning Capabilities 119

5.3 GSM/GPRS/EDGE LCS Architecture 120

5.3.1 Network Elements 120

5.3.2 Standard LCS Methods 122

5.3.3 Radio Resource LCS Protocol 127

5.4 UMTS LCS Architecture 129

5.4.1 Network Elements 129

5.4.2 Standard LCS Methods 129

5.4.3 Radio Resource Control Protocol 134

5.5 LTE LCS Architecture 134

5.5.1 Network Elements 134

5.5.2 Supported Positioning Methods 135

5.5.3 LPP 135

5.6 Summary 138

References 138

Chapter 6 Positioning in Wireless Local Area Networks and Wireless Sensor Networks 141

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 IEEE 802.11 Networks 142

6.2.1 Architecture of IEEE 802.11 Networks 143

6.2.2 Physical Layer 144

6.2.3 Link Layer 145

6.3 Positioning in Wi-Fi WLANs 149

6.3.1 Wi-Fi Outdoor Positioning 149

6.3.2 Wi-Fi Indoor Positioning 154

6.4 ZigBee Networks 165

6.4.1 Overview of WSNs 165

6.4.2 ZigBee Protocol Stack 166

6.4.3 ZigBee Network Devices 167

6.4.4 ZigBee Network Topologies 167

6.5 Positioning in ZigBee WSNs 168

6.5.1 Maximum Likelihood Estimation Cooperative Positioning 169

6.5.2 Residual Weighting 171

6.5.3 Connectivity-Based Localization 174

6.6 Summary 175

References 175

Chapter 7 GNSSs-Global Navigation Satellite Systems 179

7.1 Introduction 179

7.2 NSSs 180

7.2.1 Brief GNSS History 181

7.2.2 RNSSs 184

7.2.3 Search and Rescue 185

7.2.4 Collaborative Services 185

7.3 GNSS Basics 186

7.3.1 General Model 186

7.3.2 Position Fix 191

7.3.3 Reference Frame 202

7.3.4 Error Sources 203

7.3.5 GNSS Receivers 207

7.3.6 Control Segment: Some Observations 210

7.4 GNSS Variations 210

7.4.1 GPS 211

7.4.2 GLONASS 216

7.4.3 BeiDou/Compass 220

7.4.4 GALILEO 223

7.5 Search and Rescue Satellite System: COSPAS-SARSAT 227

7.5.1 LEOSAR 228

7.5.2 GEOSAR 230

7.5.3 MEOSAR 231

7.6 Summary 231

References 232

Chapter 8 Positioning in Bluetooth and UWB Networks 237

8.1 Introduction 237

8.2 Bluetooth Networks 237

8.2.1 Bluetooth Power Classes 238

8.2.2 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture 238

8.2.3 Bluetooth Evolutionary Path 239

8.3 Positioning in Bluetooth Networks 241

8.3.1 RSS-Based Multilateration Solutions 242

8.3.2 Fingerprinting-Based Solutions 246

8.4 UWB Networks 251

8.4.1 Definition of UWB Technology 251

8.4.2 Overview of FCC UWB Regulations 252

8.4.3 IEEE Task and Study Groups Related to UWB 252

8.4.4 UWB versus Bluetooth 253

8.5 Positioning in UWB Networks 253

8.5.1 Geometric-Positioning 253

8.5.2 RF Fingerprinting 254

8.6 Summary 256

References 257

Chapter 9 Al Systems for RF Positioning 261

9.1 Introduction 261

9.2 Machine Learning 262

9.2.1 Supervised Learning: Backpropagation ANNs 264

9.2.2 Unsupervised Learning: Kohonen Layers 265

9.2.3 Evolutionary Learning: GA 266

9.3 Fuzzy Logic 267

9.4 Datasets Used in the Experimental Evaluations 269

9.4.1 Outdoor Tests in GSM Cellular Networks 269

9.4.2 Indoor Test in Wi-Fi Networks 269

9.5 Optimized Search with GA 271

9.5.1 Overview 271

9.5.2 Experimental Evaluation in a Cellular Network 273

9.6 Direct MS Positioning Using Backpropagation ANNs 277

9.6.1 Overview 277

9.6.2 Experimental Evaluation in a Cellular Network 278

9.7 Predicting Location Accuracy with Backpropagation ANNs 280

9.7.1 Overview 280

9.7.2 Experimental Evaluation in a Cellular Network 284

9.8 Multifloor Indoor Positioning with Kohonen Layer and Committees of ANNs 286

9.8.1 Overview 286

9.8.2 Unsupervised Clustering Using Kohonen Layer with Conscience 288

9.8.3 Floor Classification Using Committees of Backpropagation ANNs 290

9.8.4 Experimental Evaluation in Wi-Fi Networks 291

9.9 Direct MS Positioning Using an FIS 295

9.9.1 Overview 295

9.9.2 Experimental Evaluation in Cellular Networks 295

9.10 Summary 299

References 299

Chapter 10 Developing RF Positioning Applications for Mobile Devices 303

10.1 Introduction 303

10.2 Developing Apps for Android Devices with MIT App Inventor 2 304

10.2.1 Projects Window 305

10.2.2 Designer Window 305

10.2.3 Blocks Window 308

10.2.4 Testing an App Using MIT App Inventor 2 Companion 310

10.2.5 Sample App: Geo fencing 1.0 310

10.2.6 Geofencing 1.0 Components 311

10.2.7 Geofencing 1.0 Event Handlers 312

10.3 Going a Little Deeper with Android SDK 315

10.3.1 Android SDK Packages 316

10.3.2 Supported Operating Systems 316

10.3.3 Eclipse IDE 316

10.3.4 ADT Plug-In for Eclipse 316

10.3.5 ADT Bundle 317

10.3.6 Setting Up Virtual Devices with the AVD Manager 317

10.3.7 Fast Virtual Mode with Intel Hardware Accelerated Executive Manager 318

10.3.8 Creating an Android Application Project in Eclipse 321

10.3.9 Creating a Run Configuration in Eclipse 322

10.3.10 Sample Localization Apps: WiFiTrain and WiFiLoc 323

10.4 Summary 327

References 328

List of Acronyms 329

About the Authors 337

Index 339