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Tarahumara Medicine
Ethnobotany and Healing among the Rarámuri of Mexico
By Fructuoso Irigoyen-Rascón, Alfonso Paredes UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA PRESS
Copyright © 2015 University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Publishing Division of the University.
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-8061-4362-0
CHAPTER 1
The Tarahumara Ecological Habitat
Mexico is a federal representative republic composed of thirty-two states of which Chihuahua, in the northwest, is the largest with a surface area of 247,087 square kilometers. Twenty-four out of the sixty-seven municipios, or counties, within the state shelter a considerable native population. Historically, the Rarámuri people occupied the central municipios, while the Pimas Bajos, Jovas, and Varijíos lived in the northern counties and Tepehuans in the southernmost ones. Other groups that have had a distinct historical presence in the state include the extinct Tubares, as well as the Guazaparis, Témoris, Chínipas, and other possible Tarahumara subgroups. The recent and more controversial — as some scholars debate their existence — Masculai were also located within the area.
Tarahumara Country today, located in the southwestern portion of Chihuahua, is bounded by the meridians 108°50' west and 106° west and the parallels 30° north and 25°40' north. This land, 74,951 square kilometers, represents 30.33 percent of the state's surface area. The total population of Tarahumara Country, including the Tarahumara peoples, other Indian groups, mestizos, and whites who live there, is about 320,022. The precise number of Tarahumaras is not known; estimates have ranged between 75,000 and 100,000. The number of Tarahumara-speaking individuals was estimated at 54,431 in 1990 and 62,555 in 1995. In 1997 the estimated Indian population of Chihuahua was 129,250. Municipios located peripherally in Tarahumara Country are the largest in population, but they are less densely inhabited by Tarahumaras.
Tarahumara Country may be divided into two regions: the uplands, locally called the "sierra," in the north, northeast, and south; and canyon country, or the barrancas, in the southwest. The uplands consist of a succession of mountain ridges, hillocks, and peaks interspersed with valleys; they are part of the southern Chihuahuan segment of the Sierra Madre Occidental, the continuation of the Rocky Mountains in Mexico. Six hundred kilometers of the Sierra Madre in Chihuahua are lined up in a north-south direction, but in the southern county of Guadalupe y Calvo, in Tarahumara Country, the main chain turns slightly, acquiring a northwest-southeast direction. The principal summits in the state are Mohinora, 3,307 meters; Romúrachi, 2,985 meters; and Cerro de la Capellina, 2,571 meters. The average elevation of the Sierra is about 2,270 meters, or 7,447 feet, with the southern part being 300 to 600 meters higher than the northern part. The uplands have been described as a rolling plateau, whose southern two-thirds show more rugged terrain, with mountains, gorges, and cliffs, than the relatively plain northern third.
The geologic formations of the Sierra Tarahumaras evolved during the Paleozoic era, but the actual mountain building didn't take place until the Cenozoic era. Volcanic eruptions, which deposited millions of tons of ashes and lava, were the Sierra's main orogenic force. The solidified volcanic deposits formed thick layers of volcanic tuff and rhyolites with deposits in some areas of crystallized materials such as free quartz, volcanic breccia, andesites, porphyries, and obsidian, as well as agate-like rocks and optic calcite. There were several metallogenic events, which resulted in deposits of gold, silver, and copper; these metals were a source of wealth during the Spanish colonial time. Washing out gold and silver from the sands of the rivers, locally called chiveo, provides a marginal livelihood to some people today.
The characteristics of the rocks suggest a sequence of geological events, particularly on the banks of the upper Urique River. For instance, in Romichi, near Norogachi, sedimentary strata indicative of the primeval river course can be discovered under layers formed by a flow of lava. Embedded in these rocks are fossils of small animals trapped by the sediment. Study of this material may help to determine the sequence of the volcanic eruptions and the dates when the animals lived.
Canyon Country, or the Barrancas
The canyons located in western Chihuahua exhibit grandiose beauty and awesome depth. An informal contest among writers has tried to establish which is the deepest canyon — the Barranca de Urique or the Grand Canyon in Arizona. It has been claimed that the Urique Canyon is more than 2,000 meters deep. Almada reported its depth as more than 1,524 meters, concluding that it was deeper than the Grand Canyon. According to Gajdusek, the depth of the Barranca del Cobre upstream from Urique Canyon has been estimated to be even deeper, more than 2,438 meters deep. Wampler indicates that both canyons are more than 1,609 meters deep for considerable distances. In the vicinity of Pamachi, the Barranca del Cobre has a depth exceeding 1,981 meters. Compare that to the depth of the Grand Canyon at its southern rim in Arizona, near the national park headquarters — it is 1,609 meters.
The bottom of canyon country at many points is only a few hundred meters above sea level. The climate is tropical, as are the fauna and flora. The topography of canyon country, which includes a variety of formations exposed over time, is due to the erosion of the volcanic tuff by streams. Natural dikes are prominent features of the middle sections of the Urique Canyon slopes, and great benches of volcanic material characterize the middle and upper canyon slopes of the Verde River. Sedimentary rocks that were dragged away by rushing water and deposited in the lowlands left exposed hypabyssal formations within the canyons. Erosion also exposed deposits of metals, allowing for their exploitation. Mining centers were developed during colonial times at some of the areas of contact between volcanic materials and adjacent sediments.
Hydrographic Features of the Area
A variety of rivers flow through Chihuahua and help support life in Tarahumara Country. Small streams originating in the uplands, close to the Continental Divide, join on the Pacific side, forming the deep canyon system of the Fuerte River. On the opposite side of the Divide, streams converge to form the Conchos River, which drains into the Gulf of Mexico. The northeastern portion of Tarahumara Country drains into three small endorheic basins, which end in Laguna de los Mexicanos, Laguna Bustillos, and Laguna Encinillas and do not continue to the sea. The rapid streams that drain into the Conchos River remain dry most of the year; only a few springs are full year-round. Unlike the Fuerte, the Conchos, the main affluent of the Rio Grande, did not cut deep canyons. Its basin covers an area of 77,090 square kilometers, most of which is in the state of Chihuahua; a small portion is located in the state of Durango. Several of the most representative and typical Tarahumara settlements — Sisoguichi, Creel, Bocoyna, Tewerichi, Narárachi, Bakéachi, and Wawachérare — are located by the headwaters of this river. The water of the Conchos River is used for irrigation in central Chihuahua and supports the flourishing agriculture of that zone.
Another important river in Tarahumara Country is Rio Sinaloa, or Petatlán, which flows out of the waters of the highest peaks of the Sierra. This river leaves the state of Chihuahua and enters the state of Sinaloa near the town of Tohayana. It then returns briefly to Chihuahua, then turns again to the southwest and meanders back through Sinaloa to reach the Gulf of California. The basin area of the Rio Sinaloa covers 13,300 square kilometers, including the southernmost Chihuahuan canyons of Barranca de Dolores.
The Verde River, known at various points along its course as San Miguel, San Ignacio, Río de la Sinforosa, and Wérachi, is the main affluent of the Fuerte River. It begins in Durango, then enters Chihuahua, gaining waters from the Arroyo de los Loera, Arroyo de Chinatú, and then the Batopilas River. Finally, it joins the Urique, Septentrión, and Chínipas Rivers, becoming the Fuerte River proper. The river then meanders through Sinaloa and finally empties into the Gulf of California.
The Fuerte River's basin occupies 36,275 square kilometers. This river cuts impressive canyons, including the ones of Wérachi and Sinforosa. In this area, Tarahumara groups live in isolated hamlets, or rancherías. During winter these people migrate to the bottom of the canyons, which have a much warmer climate during this period. Located in the margins of the Batopilas River are the former mining towns of Batopilas and La Bufa. Among the most impressive canyons carved by this river are those of La Bufa canyon and Arroyo de Munérachi.
The most striking among these rivers is probably the Urique River. Its course runs parallel to the Batopilas River. The main canyon formed by the river is known successively as Copper Canyon, Tararecua, and Barranca de Urique.
The Septentrión River, also known as Arroyo de Cuiteco, is a stream with a relatively slow incline. The track of the railroad Chihuahua al Pacífico runs alongside. The Río Septentrión joins the stream of the Río Chínipas in the state of Sinaloa.
The Oteros, or Chínipas, River runs north to south along the old mission of the same name. It traverses Varijío country and carves the canyons of Concepción and Semuína. The impressive bridges of the railroad Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacífico cross this river. The Mayo River, known by the name of the Indian tribe living alongside its lower course, originates from the union of the arroyos of Moris and Candameña and has a basin surface of 13,750 square kilometers. The Barrancas of Candameña and Mulatos, although not as deep as the Copper Canyon, are remarkable because of their vertical walls. Barranca de Candameña was carved by Arroyo del Santísimo, a stream that also forms the Basaséachi waterfall, often referred to as the highest single-fall waterfall in the world with about 400 meters in height. On the Chihuahuan banks of the river and its affluents there are mining centers such as Uruachi, Nueva Unión, and Maguarichi. The Yaqui River takes its name from the Indian tribe that lives alongside the valley formed by the lower portion of its course. Yaqui's basin occupies an area of 72,630 square kilometers. In Chihuahua, the Yaqui River is known as Papigochi or Sírupa. Along the banks of the Papigochi are located the only cities of the Sierra: Ciudad Guerrero, formerly Papigochi, and Ciudad Madera; and old towns such as Matachí and Temósachi.
Regional Climate
The Sierra Madre Occidental chain of mountains deflects winds carrying moisture, cooling the air and producing rain. At the Sierra's summits the annual precipitation averages 500 and 600 millimeters, while on its eastern side precipitation falls 300 to 500 millimeters. Farther to the east, one finds the arid and semiarid zones of the states of Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, and Zacatecas. The Sierra acts as a barrier for the winds and humidity coming from the Pacific Ocean, including from summer and fall hurricanes and tropical storms. The rainy season usually begins in June and lasts until September. In winter, the rain comes in spells, from very slight sprinkling rain to true storms, locally known as equipatas. Equipatas bring in some instances more water in a single day than the whole rainy summer season. When the temperatures are low, an equipata may become a snowstorm. Interregional precipitation variability is considerable. For example San Juanito, with only sixty-five rainy days per year, has a mean annual precipitation of 1,364 millimeters, but Ciudad Guerrero to the east with 107 rainy days has only 506 millimeters. As a mean, the land of the Tarahumaras receives 807 millimeters of precipitation per year.
According to available data, the uplands have a mean annual temperature of 11.8° C, with highs of 21.4° C and lows of 2.52° C. On average, 181 days are free of frost per year. Temperatures ranging between 10 and 29 degrees below zero may be expected from mid-December to the end of February and some snow between November and May. The temperature and rain registry from Norogachi is representative of most of the Sierra with an annual mean temperature of 11.6° C. The warmest days of the year occur during the end of June and the coldest in January and February; the first frost falls around September 24, the last on March 30.
San Juanito, Guachochi and Madera are particularly cold zones. Interestingly, these are among the most densely inhabited areas in the Sierra.
The canyon country is an area with a tropical climate with an annual mean temperature of 24° C. Low-altitude places such as Batopilas, 501 meters above sea level; Morelos, 606; Urique, 599; Chínipas, 515; and Moris, 714, are located in between mountains with altitudes of over 2,000 meters above sea level. Temperature data from Batopilas may represent the norm for the whole canyon country. The weather is quite warm and with high humidity. In July the highs reach 44° C, and the average high temperature is 30.1° C. The average low is 18.0° C. There are approximately 300 days free of frost per year. The precipitation by year amounts to 632.2 millimeters.
Tarahumaras living close to the canyon rims reside on the high altitude areas in summer, and on the low altitude places in winter. The climate favors Mediterranean and tropical types of agriculture in the canyon floor, where coffee, oranges, lemons, limes, avocados, bananas, sugar cane, and tobacco are grown. In the uplands, the climate is mountain-cold temperate, with a summer rainy season and winter snow or equipata. Most technical reports seem to ignore the presence of winter rain, classifying the upland's climate as Köppen's BSkw (dry with a summer rainy season) or Cwb (temperate, close to subtropical with a dry winter). Just a narrow strip along Río Balleza is classified as BShw (subtropical, dry). The canyon country, between the altitudes of 600 to 1700 meters, has a subtropical climate, temperate with summer rains and dry in winter (Cwa).
The Tarahumaras recognize only two seasons to the year in their country: bará or las aguas (the rainy season) and romó (winter).
The Soil
In the uplands, brown forest soils are common and in many places they have undergone the process known as "podzolisation" by which water drags humus and iron compounds into the ground, leaving an acidified surface composed of silica and silica-like compounds. Soils throughout the Sierra have little depth; the superficial layer consists of partially decomposed pine leaves and other detritus. The underlying rock is mainly volcanic tuff or rhyolite and lacks natural fertilizing agents; the land therefore is poor, requiring fertilization for agricultural purposes.
The action of erosion is well apparent; many areas do not have soil covering and the rock (laja) is left bare. Deforestation has progressed at an alarming rate since the 1960s and does not seem to be abating. Finally, slash-and-burn agriculture (mawéchi), inadequate drainage of farming lands, and overgrazing by goats accelerates erosion. However, black soils (chernozem) rich in humus, may be found atop the Sierra Madre surrounding the forest brown soils. In the canyon country, the soil under monte mojino belongs to the lithosoles class. The scarce soil among the rocks is worked out by hand, yielding a good crop the first year, followed by severely decreasing yields. At the canyon's bottom, alongside the river, the soil is usually sandy or muddy. The abundance of water and the fertilizing action of debris deposited by the river makes the soil more productive.
The Flora
Above 2,000 meters in altitude, pine forests are the characteristic vegetation and between 1,500 and 2,000 meters, mixed pine-oak is the norm. In most areas, Pinus ponderosa is prevalent but at least ten other species of pine are also found. Incidentally, okó is the generic Rarámuri name for pine trees, but the Rarámuri know the different species and have names for each one of them. Near Cerocahui and in some middle elevation upland meadows, one may find stands of Pseudotsuga mucronata and Abies durangensis (Spanish pinabete or Tarahumaramateó). The less broken terrain of the northern Sierra made possible large forestry exploitation there (Madera City, Matachí, and Temósachi), but it is currently in decline. Evergreen oaks usually grow mixed with the pines except in the higher places where only pine trees grow. In the lowlands, instead of pine trees, climax oaks may be found. A third representative tree of the Sierra is the juniper, whose habitat extends beyond Tarahumara Country's boundaries. Interspersed in this mixed forest, the madroños with their bright red, peeling trunks and branches contrast with the green landscape. Other trees, such as ashes (wisaró) and willows are also common. In the eastern lomeríos country, characterized by hilly terrain, pine trees practically disappear, giving way to huizache (wichá), mezquite (bejoké), and manzanilla(ku'wí) and making the landscape similar to that of desert zones with occasional cacti such as nopal (Opuntia sp.) and Ferrocactus herrarae and Echinocactus otonis. Ascending the Sierra from the northern deserts, the traveler crosses through dense clusters of Opuntia cholla.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Tarahumara Medicine by Fructuoso Irigoyen-Rascón, Alfonso Paredes. Copyright © 2015 University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Publishing Division of the University.. Excerpted by permission of UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA PRESS.
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