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| ISBN-13: | 9780226112428 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | University of Chicago Press |
| Publication date: | 06/24/2009 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 200 |
| File size: | 7 MB |
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The Babylonian Genesis
The Story of Creation
By Alexander Heidel
The University of Chicago Press
Copyright © 1951 The University of ChicagoAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-226-11242-8
CHAPTER 1
ENÛMA ELISH
Of All the Semitic inscriptions composed in cuneiform writing few have awakened as great a general interest as the epic known among the Babylonians and Assyrians as Enûma elish ("When above"), which takes its name from the opening words of the poem. Aside from linguistic considerations, this widespread popularity of Enûma elish is in part due to its great significance for the study of the theogonic and cosmogonic views of the Mesopotamians, and thus for a comparative study of ancient Near Eastern religion in general; but above all else it is due to the fact that Enûma elish presents quite a number of analogies to the first two chapters of the Book of Genesis.
THE DISCOVERY OF THE TABLETS
This great epic is recorded on seven clay tablets and covers in all a little over one thousand lines. The first fragments to come to light were discovered by Austen H. Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and George Smith among the ruins of King Ashurbanipal's (668–ca. 630 B.C.) great library at Nineveh between the years 1848 and 1876. During their explorations at Ashur (the old capital of Assyria), from 1902 to 1914, the German excavators unearthed a number of fragments of an Assyrian version of the Babylonian story (especially of Tablets I, VI, and VII) which differs from the latter chiefly in that some copies substitute the name of Ashur, the king of the Assyrian gods, for that of Marduk, the king of the Babylonian deities, and in that they make Lahmu and Lahâmu the parents of Ashur. In 1924–25 two almost complete tablets, I and VI, of a Neo-Babylonian version of the epic were discovered at Kish by the joint expedition of Oxford University and the Field Museum of Chicago. And in 1928–29 the Germans found quite a large Neo-Babylonian fragment of Tablet VII at Uruk (the biblical Erech). Thanks to these discoveries and to purchases of fragments which have been made from dealers in antiquities (the provenance of most of these fragments being uncertain), the epic has been restored almost in its entirety; the only tablet of which a large portion is still wanting is Tablet V.
THE PUBLICATION OF THE MATERIAL
The first to publish an account of the epic was George Smith, of the British Museum, who in 1875 described in a letter to the Daily Telegraph the contents of about twenty fragments of the creation series. In 1876 appeared his book The Chaldean Account of Genesis, which contained a translation and discussion of all the pieces which had been identified. All this material was very fragmentary, but the resemblance of its contents to the initial chapters of the Old Testament was unmistakable, and consequently it had an immediate appeal to a much wider circle of students than would otherwise have been the case. Since then this story has been copied and translated by a great many Assyriologists, especially as new tablets or portions of tablets have been found.
In 1890 Peter Jensen, in his work Die Kosmologie der Babylonier (Strassburg), published a translation together with a transliteration and a commentary; five years later Heinrich Zimmern issued a new and improved translation in Hermann Gunkel's volume Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit (Göttingen, 1895); the very next year Friedrich Delitzsch issued Das babylonische Weltschöpfungsepos (Leipzig, 1896). Within a few years this was superseded by Jensen's penetrating and still highly valuable study of Enûma elish in his book Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen (Berlin, 1900), containing a transliteration, a translation, and an extensive commentary. At the turn of the century, L. W. King issued a large number of creation fragments in his two volumes The Seven Tablets of Creation (London, 1902), the first of which contains chiefly transliterations, translations, and discussions, while the second offers cuneiform texts only.
More recent publications dealing with this subject are A. Ungnad, Die Religion der Babylonier und Assyrer (Jena, 1921); Erich Ebeling, Das babylonische Weltschöpfungslied in Bruno Meissner, Altorientalische Texte und Untersuchungen, II, 4 (Breslau, 1921); Ebeling's revised rendition in Hugo Gressmann's volume Altorientalische Texte zum Alten Testament (Berlin and Leipzig, 1926); S. Langdon, The Babylonian Epic of Creation (Oxford, 1923) and Babylonian Penitential Psalms to Which Are Added Fragments of the Epic of Creation from Kish (Paris, 1927); Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, The Babylonian Legends of the Creation (London, 1931); Anton Deimel, "Enuma Eliš" und Hexaëmeron (Rome, 1934); G. Furlani, Il Poema della creazione (Bologna, 1934); and René Labat, Le Poème babylonien de la création (Paris, 1935).
The publications in which the cuneiform texts have been made available are for the most part cited in the studies just mentioned; the rest will be referred to in footnotes in the present volume.
A SUMMARY OF THE STORY
The epic opens with a brief reference to the time when nothing except the divine parents, Apsû and Ti'âmat, and their son Mummu existed. Apsû was the primeval sweet-water ocean, and Ti'âmat the salt-water ocean, while Mummu probably represented the mist rising from the two bodies of water and hovering over them, particularly since in Tablet VII: 86 he is brought in direct relation with the clouds. These three types of water were mingled in one, forming an immense, undefined mass in which were contained all the elements of which afterward the universe was made. As yet, there was neither heaven nor earth, not even a reed marsh was to be seen. In time, Apsû and Ti'âmat brought forth the brother and sister pair Lahmu and Lahâmu. While these two were growing up, another brother and sister pair came into being, Anshar and Kishar, who surpassed the older children in stature. The nature of these two divine pairs is still a matter for conjecture.
After many years, a son was born to Anshar and Kishar. They named him Anu, probably in allusion to the fact that he was the likeness of his father, Anshar. Anu was the sky-god. He, in turn, begot Nudimmud, his likeness. Nudimmud, also known as Enki and Ea, was a god of exceptional wisdom and strength; he became the god of the subterranean sweet waters, the god of magic, and the mastermind of the Mesopotamian divinities. He had no rival among his fellow-gods; in fact, because of the advantages with which he was endowed, he was the master even of his fathers.
The younger gods, being full of life and vitality, naturally enjoyed noisy, hilarious gatherings. These, however, caused serious distress to their old, inactive, and rest-loving parents and grandparents, Apsû and Ti'âmat. Peaceful means were tried to diminish the disturbing clamor, but without success. Finally, Apsû, in utter exasperation, resolved on a drastic course of action. Accompanied by Mummu, his son and vizier, he went before Ti'âmat and submitted a plan to her which made her motherly heart cry out in painful rage: "Why should we destroy that which we ourselves have brought forth? Their way is indeed painful, but let us take it good-naturedly!" But Apsû, supported by his vizier, adhered to his expressed purpose with adamant tenacity: "I will destroy (them) and put an end to their way, that silence be established, and then let us sleep!"
At the break of the news, the gods were filled with consternation and ran about aimlessly. Finally, they quieted down and sat in silent gloom, without anyone being able to suggest a way of deliverance. Fortunately, in that dark hour there was found one who was master even of Apsû; it was Ea, "the one of supreme understanding, the skilful, (and) wise," the god of magic. He made a magic circle of some kind around the gods, as a protection against attack, and then composed an overpowering, holy incantation. He recited it and caused it to descend, as a soporific force, upon Apsû. As Ea recited his incantation, Apsû succumbed to the power of the spell and sank into a profound sleep. And as Apsû was lying there, suffused with sleep, Ea removed his royal tiara and his supernatural radiance and clothed himself therewith. After he had thus come into possession of Apsû's might and splendor, he slew the father of all the gods and imprisoned his vizier, gaining his victory chiefly through the application of authority or power inherent in the spoken word, the magic of the spell. Ti'âmat remained unmolested, since she had not been in sympathy with Apsû's designs. Upon the slain Apsû, Ea subsequently established a spacious abode. He named it "Apsû" and appointed it for shrines for himself and for other deities. There he and his wife, Damkina, dwelt in splendor.
There also it was that Marduk, "the wisest of the gods," was born, the one who was destined some day to deliver the gods from an even more dreadful foe and to become the head of the vast Babylonian pantheon. "He who begot him was Ea, his father. Damki[na], his mother, was she who bore him. He sucked the breasts of goddesses" and thus imbibed additional divine power and qualities. Marduk was an imposing figure, endowed with flashing eye and awe-inspiring majesty. When his father beheld him, "he rejoiced, he beamed, his heart was filled with joy." Evidently by means of magic, Ea then conferred upon his son double equality with the gods, which manifested itself in the two faces of Marduk and the doubled dimensions of his members, so that "he was exalted among the gods."
In the meantime, Ti'âmat was disturbed, doubtless because of the violent death of her husband. Day and night, she restlessly moved about. Her restlessness mounted as some of the gods, led by Kingu (cf. Tablet VI: 23–30), in their wickedness instigated her to avenge the death of her spouse. Ti'âmat yielded and decided on war against the gods who were either responsible for or in sympathy with the murder of her husband.
The rebel gods now publicly seceded and went over to the side of Ti'âmat; they raged and plotted, not resting day or night; "they held a meeting and planned the conflict." Ti'âmat, on her part, gave birth to eleven kinds of monster serpents and ferocious dragons for the impending contest; she exalted Kingu to be her new spouse, she intrusted him with the high command of the battle, gave him dominion over all the gods, and presented him with the coveted tablet of destinies with all its magic powers. A formidable demonic host had suddenly sprung into existence.
It was not until Ti'âmat was almost ready for the assault that someone informed Ea of the imminent peril. When Ea, the wise and skilful, the hero who had vanquished Apsû, heard of the impending danger, he was benumbed with fear and dismay. When he had thought the matter over and had regained his composure, he went to Anshar, his grandfather, and "communicated to him all that Ti'âmat had planned" and the preparations she had made, repeating word for word the report which he himself had received. Anshar was moved to expressions of deepest grief and grave concern and appealed to Ea to proceed against the foe. Ea obeyed the voice of his grandfather, but the venture, though undertaken by him who had achieved such a decisive victory over Apsû, ended in failure. Anshar then turned to his son Anu, urging him to try peaceful measures, saying: "[Go a]nd stand thou before Ti'âmat, [that] her spirit [become quiet and] her heart calm down. [If] she does not hearken to thy word, speak our [word(?)] to her, that she may be quieted." Anu went, armed with his own authority and that of the leader of the gods. But, unlike Apsû, Ti'âmat could not be overcome by any amount of mere authority or any degree of mere magic power; she had to be conquered through the application of physical force. Anu returned in terror, asking to be relieved of the task. Anshar lapsed into silence, looking upon the ground and shaking his head. "All the Anunnaki were assembled at the place. Their lips were closed, [they sat in] silence." Never before had the gods been in such a plight. The picture is painted in extremely dark and somber colors to make the greatness of the subsequent victory all the more evident.
In this moment of supreme crisis, a happy thought occurred to Anshar; he remembered the prowess of valiant Marduk, who in some way had already proved his valor (cf. Tablet II: 95) and who certainly would not fail. Marduk was summoned into the presence of Ea, to be instructed by his father, and then appeared before Anshar. When Anshar saw the young Marduk, abounding in strength and radiating confidence, "his heart was filled with joy; he kissed his lips, his fear was removed," while Marduk assured him: "[Anshar], be not silent, (but) open thy lips; I will go and accomplish all that is in thy heart! [My father, c]reator, be glad and rejoice; soon thou shalt trample upon the neck of Ti'âmat!" There was no doubt in anyone's mind that Marduk, despite his youth, could save the gods from their powerful enemy. Moreover, Marduk was ready to go to battle and deliver the gods from disaster. But he demanded a high price—supreme and undisputed authority among the gods. Anshar agreed to the terms (cf. Tablet III: 65–66), but the decision had to be confirmed by the gods in their assembly.
Anshar therefore dispatched Kaka, his vizier, to Lahmu and Lahâmu and all the other gods who were living at a great distance and, consequently, had as yet no knowledge of the impending struggle. Kaka was to inform the gods of the gravity of the situation and to summon them into the presence of Anshar. After a few prefatory remarks, Anshar gave Kaka a verbatim repetition of the account of Ti'âmat's hostile activities and charged him to repeat the message word for word to Lahmu and Lahâmu. Kaka went and repeated Anshar's speech in every detail. Upon learning of the sudden and unparalleled crisis, the gods were perplexed and horrified, they cried aloud and wailed painfully. They departed and entered into the presence of Anshar, filling the Court of Assembly. They kissed one another as they met, and then sat down to a banquet, which Anshar had prepared to put the gods in the right frame of mind. "The sweet wine dispelled their fears; [their] bod[ies] swelled as they drank the strong drink. Exceedingly carefree were they, their spirit was exalted; for Marduk, their avenger, they decreed the destiny."
After the feast, the gods erected a lordly throne-dais for Marduk, and the young god sat down before his fathers to receive sovereignty. In a solemn speech, the gods conferred upon him the powers of the supreme position in the pantheon and gave him "kingship over the totality of the whole universe." To determine whether Marduk actually had this power, the gods made a test. They placed a garment in their midst. At his command, the garment was destroyed; again at his command, the garment was restored to its former condition. When the gods beheld the efficacy of his word, they rejoiced and paid homage, acclaiming Marduk king of the gods. They invested him with the royal insignia, the scepter, the throne, and the royal robe(?), adding thereto "an irresistible weapon smiting the enemy," with the plea: "Go and cut off the life of Ti'âmat!"
Marduk departed to prepare for the fray. He made a bow, put an arrowhead on the arrow, and grasped a club in his right hand; the bow and quiver he hung at his side; like the storm-god, he caused lightning to precede him; he filled his body with a blazing flame; he made a net and had the four winds, the gift of Anu, carry it for him; as a further aid, he created seven winds of his own; he raised the rain-flood and mounted his irresistible, terrible storm chariot, drawn by four frightful mythological creatures. Clad in a terrifying coat of mail, with an overpowering brightness about his head, and supplied with various apotropaic means, Marduk then set out to meet the seemingly invincible Ti'âmat, the gods milling around him.
The mere appearance of Marduk, arrayed in all his terrifying might and dazzling splendor, threw Kingu and his helpers into confusion. Ti'âmat alone remained unperturbed, greeting Marduk with awful taunts and apparently a loud roar to frighten the youthful god. But Marduk was of tougher fiber than his father Ea and his grandfather Anu. Without being in the least disturbed, he denounced Ti'âmat in trenchant terms for her wicked measures and challenged her to a duel! "When Ti'âmat heard this, she became like one in a frenzy (and) lost her reason. She cried out loud (and) furiously," shaking to her very foundations! But she accepted the challenge, and the two pressed on to single combat. Marduk spread out his net and enmeshed her. "When Ti'âmat opened her mouth to devour him, he drove in the evil wind, in order that (she should) not (be able) to close her lips." As the raging winds distended her body, Marduk shot an arrow through her open mouth; it struck her heart and destroyed her life. Having thus killed Ti'âmat, he cast down her carcass and victoriously stood upon it. When her followers saw that their leader was dead, they dispersed and tried to flee. But none escaped.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from The Babylonian Genesis by Alexander Heidel. Copyright © 1951 The University of Chicago. Excerpted by permission of The University of Chicago Press.
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Table of Contents
List of IllustrationsList of Symbols and Special Characters
I. Enûma Elish
II. Related Babylonian Creation Stories
III. Old Testament Parallels
Appendix