The Essential Companion to Life in Bible Times: Key Insights for Reading God's Word
144
The Essential Companion to Life in Bible Times: Key Insights for Reading God's Word
144Paperback
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Overview
Unlike many similar works, this Bible companion is organized thematically, making it easier to scan over broad subjects at one go. Topics include:
- The family—describes what the Bible says about children and childbirth, education, the different roles performed by men and women; as well as topics like sex, marriage, divorce, old age, death, and burial.
- The household—from house architecture and furniture to topics of everyday survival, such as food and its preparation, water access, and how illnesses were handled.
- Work life—discusses major Old Testament occupations and trades, from livestock and woodworking to commerce.
- Social life—includes explanations of population, the calendar, economics, crafts, travel and trade, dress, and music.
- Government—how different aspects of governance were handled in towns, larger cities, and the state, including the roles of the king, elders, and officials.
- Israel's religious life—from the use of high places and altars, to the importance of the tabernacle and the temple, to the role of priests and Levites.
Between the brief introductions you might find in a study Bible and the overwhelming amount of detail in an exhaustive reference handbook, Essential Companion to Life in Bible Times strikes the perfect balance of manageable information, giving any student of Scripture the keys to unlock commonly misunderstood passages as well as deepen your appreciation of even the most familiar Bible stories.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780310286882 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Zondervan |
| Publication date: | 08/27/2011 |
| Series: | Essential Bible Companion Series |
| Pages: | 144 |
| Sales rank: | 970,215 |
| Product dimensions: | 7.30(w) x 9.00(h) x 0.50(d) |
| Age Range: | 18 Years |
About the Author
Read an Excerpt
The Essential Companion to Life in Bible Times
By Moisés Silva
Zondervan
Copyright © 2011 Moisés SilvaAll right reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-310-28688-2
Chapter One
Family
As the fundamental unit of human society, the family played a central role in Israelite history and culture. This chapter explores the role of individuals in family life from birth until death.
Children
As in other cultures, so also in Israel the birth of a child was a very joyful occasion (Lk. 1:57–58). Moreover, having many children was seen as a special blessing from God:
Sons are a heritage from the Lord, children a reward from him. Like arrows in the hands of a warrior are sons born in one's youth. Blessed is the man whose quiver is full of them. They will not be put to shame when they contend with their enemies in the gate. (Ps. 127:3–5)
Conversely, to be a wife without motherhood was regarded not merely as a matter of regret, but also of reproach and humiliation, as may be seen from Rachel's passionate words to her husband Jacob, "Give me children, or I'll die!" (Gen. 30:1), and from Hannah's silent pleading (1 Sam. 1:10–17). It is significant that the wives of the Hebrew patriarchs— Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel (but not Leah)— were by nature barren (Gen. 11:30; 25:21; 29:31), and therefore God's special intervention in their lives showed his favor to Israel (cf. also Elizabeth, Lk. 1:5–25).
According to the Hebrew ceremonial system, childbirth rendered a mother "unclean" because of the bleeding involved (Lev. 12:1–5). After the period of purification was over, she was to bring to the priest a lamb and a pigeon (or dove) to be sacrificed. If she could not afford a lamb, she was allowed to offer a second pigeon instead (12:6–8). The fact that Mary offered two pigeons after the birth of Jesus gives touching testimony to the family's comparative poverty (Lk. 2:22–24).
In the case of a boy, circumcision—the cutting off of his foreskin—was to be performed on the eighth day (Lev. 12:3), at which time the child was officially given his name (Lk. 1:59). Although circumcision was practiced in Egypt and elsewhere, this ritual was especially significant among the Hebrews, for it gave witness to the unique covenant that God had established with Abraham, the father of the nation (Gen. 17:9–14). According to the terms of the covenant, the Lord undertook to be the God of Abraham and his descendants, and they were to belong to him, worshipping and obeying only him. Circumcision reminded the Israelites of God's promises to them and of the duties they had assumed.
The Bible emphasizes that the outward rite, to have any significance, must be accompanied by a "circumcision of the heart" (cf. Lev. 26:41; Deut. 30:6; Ezek. 44:7). Faithless Israelites were no better than the pagans, for they were "uncircumcised in heart" (Jer. 9:25–26; cf. Rom. 2:25–29). In the early history of the Christian church, some Jewish Christians argued for the necessity of circumcising Gentiles who came into the church (Acts 15:1 –5). Paul, however, insisted that the signs of the old covenant should not be forced on the children of the new covenant (Gal. 2:3–5; 5:1–6). Paul's view was affirmed by the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:22–29).
On the basis of 1 Sam. 1:22–24 and other evidence, most historians believe that mothers in Israel and neighboring countries nursed their babies for approximately three years. Because conception is less likely to occur during the time that a mother is breast-feeding, some have argued that, on average, Israelite women gave birth to four children. Taking into account the high mortality rate of ancient times, we may infer that the typical family was not large, though undoubtedly there would have been many exceptions.
The education of children in the home was primarily religious (cf. Gen. 18:19). The goal was to train the young to know and serve the Lord (Deut. 6:7; Prov. 1:7) so that throughout their life they would not depart from this way (Prov. 22:6). Thus religious education was concerned with the forming of the child's character. The duty of honoring one's parents was written into the most basic body of laws of the nation, the Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:12). Knowledge was not divorced from being and doing, and good character was seen to result from a right relationship with God through the study of the Torah (God's law or instruction). The Hebrews became known as "the people of the Book." It was this that separated them from all other people.
The Jewish system of education was the result of a long and gradual development from a simple origin to a more complex organization by NT times. Throughout the OT period there was nothing like a state educational system. Generally speaking, the boys were taught the necessary skills of agriculture by their fathers, and the girls were taught domestic skills by their mothers.
It is impossible to say what proportion of the population was taught to read and write, but it is likely that only a small percentage would have been literate. The evidence we have would suggest that prior to and during the monarchy, education of a formal nature was only for the few. Such teaching was done in the homes by the parents. In the exilic and postexilic periods, education expanded its scope to many more individuals and was carried out in Aramaic as well as Hebrew. Such teaching continued to be done in the home, but also in schools and by specialized individuals such as the scribes. With the coming of the Greeks in the fourth century BC, the Greek language too was used in Israelite education.
The Hebrew educational system lacked scientific character. We find nothing of physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, and the other natural sciences. But the Hebrews knew many practical trades and skills: building, mining, metallurgy, wood, and stone work (Exod. 35:30–35). The point of significance is that there were no schools to teach these trades; rather, they were learned in apprenticeships. As far as we know, there were no schools of music, architecture, sculpture, painting, arts, or the theater. The place that music played in the worship in Israel (see chap. 4) suggests that at least this art must have been developed by systematic instruction, but evidence is lacking. Most of the cultural arts here mentioned were associated with the heathen religions and were developed in Greek and Roman culture.
The development of schools in the more formal sense is related to the growth of the synagogue (see chap. 6). It does not seem likely that a school system was in operation in the time of the exile. During the intertestamental period, literacy must have been widespread, since copies of "the books of the law" were found in many houses (see 1 Macc. 1:56–57). The first elementary school was probably in Jerusalem around NT times, with the institution spreading to the urban centers at a later time, usually under the wing of the synagogue. Joseph ben Gamala (c. AD 65) tried to make elementary education universal and compulsory by endeavoring to provide teachers in all provinces and allowing children to enter the school at the age of six or seven. Instruction was given in reading, and the Torah was studied in both its written and its oral form (i.e., both the Hebrew Bible and the rabbinic traditions).
Elementary education concluded about the age of fifteen, and promising students could then go on to secondary school, known as Bet ha-Midrash, "the house of study." Here the rabbis conducted theological discussions. These academies had more sanctity even than the synagogue. Under the leadership of the rabbi, students discussed the interpretation of the Torah and its application. These discussions became the basis of normative Judaism as embodied later in the Talmud. Paul was educated in the academy of the leading teacher of the time, a Pharisee named Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), who was reportedly the grandson of Hillel, considered by many the most influential Jewish rabbi in antiquity.
Men's and Women's Roles
It is a commonplace to say that Israelite society was patriarchal in nature, but this description can be understood in more than one way. The term patriarch commonly refers to the oldest male representative of a family or clan (it is especially applied to the founders of the Hebrew nation, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob). In a technical sense, the word patriarchy refers to a social system in which the father functions as the legal authority of the family, so that the wife (or wives) and children play a subordinate role and are dependent on him; in such a system, descent (and thus inheritance) is usually determined on the basis of the male line. Patriarchy has a direct effect on society more generally, with men assuming positions of power in commerce, government, religion, etc.
This general definition certainly gives an accurate picture of the Israelite nation and, indeed, of most societies throughout history. The adjective patriarchal, however, has taken on a distinctively negative sense, suggesting unfairness (as men enjoy a disproportionately large share of power), authoritarianism (as men misuse and abuse their authority), and restrictions on women that are damaging both to them and to the community more generally . To what degree such negative elements were present in Israelite society is a question that different people will answer differently, though there is little doubt that the treatment of women in Israel compared favorably with the situation in neighboring nations.
It is often claimed that Hebrew women were regarded as chattel or property, partly because "your neighbor's wife" is included in the list of household components that the Israelite was not supposed to covet (Exod. 20:17). But such an inference may be reading too much into this commandment, and the biblical material as a whole suggests that, generally speaking, women were treated with considerable dignity. In a very oppressive environment, for example, it is unlikely that a wife could have taken the initiative in commercial transactions (see Prov. 31:16, 18).
The fact that a woman, Deborah, could function both as judge and as prophetess (Jdg. 4:4–5) within the large and influential tribe of Ephraim, evidently without creating social disturbance, says a great deal about the people's attitude. The responsibility of "judging" (NRSV) involved not only making legal decisions but also exercising political rule (thus the NIV translates, "Deborah ... was leading Israel at that time"). This task often meant military leadership as well, and Deborah is best known for her role in defeating a Canaanite army under the command of Sisera (4:6–24; note that in this story another woman, Jael, kills Sisera). One must not infer, of course, that Deborah's experience reflected the position of women in general. But it does demonstrate that Israelite society, though male-dominated, did not view women as some kind of inferior race, incapable of exercising communal responsibilities.
A positive view of the relationship between men and women lies at the very foundation of Hebrew thought in the creation account. The initial description in Gen. 1:26–28 identifies "man" as "male and female," thus placing the man and the woman on an equal footing. The detailed account in chap. 2 does make certain distinctions that give Adam a more prominent role: he is created first; he is given the task of caring for the garden; his body is the source for the creation of Eve. Yet at the end of the story the emphasis lies on their unity and harmony: "The man said, 'This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called "woman," for she was taken out of man.' For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh" (2:23–24).
After the fall into sin, however, God said to the woman, "Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you" (Gen. 3:16). The precise significance of those words is disputed. Some argue that the subordination of the wife to the husband was the direct result of the fall. Others believe that at least some form of submission was already part of the created order. In any case, the words make crystal-clear that sin brought disruption into the marriage relationship and, by implication, into society more broadly. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that we should find disturbing elements in the way that men's and women's roles develop in human history, including the history of the Hebrew people.
To a large extent, the activities of Israelite women were confined to the household. If unmarried, a woman lived in her parents' home and was subject to her father (or an older brother). Within that structure she might become the heir of the father's estate, but only if there were no sons; and in that case the inheritance could not be transferred from her tribe when she married (Num. 27:1–11; 36:6–9).
If married, a woman was subject to her husband, but her role in the household was hardly a passive one. The woman from Shunem, for example, exercised initiative and even authority when she provided a room for the prophet Elisha (2 Ki. 4:8–10). If a wife bore children, her responsibilities as a mother became paramount, and she was viewed as the primary caregiver. The biblical text also calls attention to various domestic tasks, such as making bread, sewing, carrying water, tending sheep, hospitality, and generally providing for her husband and family (Gen. 18:6; 24:11–20; 27:9; 29:6; Exod. 2:16; 35:26; 1 Sam. 2:19; 9:11; 2 Sam. 13:8; Prov. 31:10 – 31; Lk. 10:38 – 42; Jn. 12:2). By Roman times the status of the wife had improved, particularly at the higher levels of society. In those households where menial tasks were performed by slaves, the Roman matron occupied a position of respect and was able to indulge in her own special way of life.
Sex, Marriage, and Divorce
In the Bible, sexual intercourse is referred to with expressions that allude to the intimate nature of the act, such as "becoming one flesh with" (Gen. 2:24), "knowing" (literal translation in Gen. 4:1, 17, 25; Jdg. 19:25; Matt. 1:25), and "lying with" someone (Gen. 34:7; Num. 31:17, 18; Deut. 22:22). The Scriptures, especially the Song of Solomon, manifest a clear awareness of the emotional and physical closeness involved. It is taken for granted that a husband and a wife should satisfy each other's sexual needs (Prov. 5:18–19; 1 Cor. 7:3–5). Sexual intercourse outside of marriage is explicitly condemned, as are prostitution, homosexuality, incest, rape, and bestiality (Exod. 20:14, 17; 22:16; Lev. 18:6–18, 23; 19:20; 20:15–16; Mk. 7:21; Rom. 1:21–27; 1 Cor. 5:1–2; 6:9–20; Heb. 13:4).
It appears that girls were married very young, some possibly even in their early teens, though the biblical text does not give specific information about this custom. Marriage was often a means of strengthening and promoting the fortunes of the family. The father was responsible for finding a suitable bride for his son, as when Abraham sent his servant to make marriage arrangements for Isaac (Gen. 24). It is usually assumed that the wishes and feelings of the young people did not play a significant role, yet Rebekah was asked to give her consent to marry Isaac (24:57–58). We also read that Saul's daughter, Michal, expressed her love for David, and this led to their marriage (1 Sam. 18:20–21, 27). On some occasions, parental advice was either ignored or not sought (e.g., Esau, Gen. 26:34–35).
(Continues...)
Excerpted from The Essential Companion to Life in Bible Times by Moisés Silva Copyright © 2011 by Moisés Silva. Excerpted by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
Table of Contents
Preface 7
Abbreviations 9
1 Family
Children 11
Men's and Women's Roles 14
Sex, Marriage, and Divorce 16
Old Age and Death 19
2 Household
Houses and Furniture 23
Types of Food 27
Food Preparation 30
Prohibited Foods 32
Water 33
Health and Illnesses 35
3 Work
Cultivation 40
Livestock 46
Woodworking 48
Quarrying and Metallurgy 49
Pottery Making 54
Other Occupations 54
Commerce and Economics 60
4 Society
Societal Relations 65
Population 66
Slavery 68
Dress 72
Music 77
5 Government
Towns and Cities 80
Elders and Officials 87
The King 90
Law and Justice 94
International Relations 96
Warfare 98
6 Religious life
Altars and High Places 108
Tabernacle and Temple 111
Priests and Levites 118
Feasts 120
Sacrifices and Offerings 122
Ritual Purity 127
Synagogue 130
Scribes and Rabbis 133