Table of Contents
1 The Parthian Empire: a first approach 1
1.1 Documentary sources from within the Parthian world 4
1.2 Greek - Roman - Chinese literary sources 5
1.3 Ancient sources: historical truths or distorted images? 7
1.4 The Parthians: nomads - Hellenes - Iranians? 8
1.5 Geography of the Parthian Empire 10
2 History of the great empires in Iran 13
2.1 The empire of Elam 13
2.2 The Medes and Persians 15
2.3 The empire of the Achaemenids 16
2.4 Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) - the Hellenistic period 18
2.5 The empire of the Seleucids 20
3 History of the Parthian Empire 22
3.1 Phase 1: Development from a Seleucid vassal state to the Parthian Empire: from Arsaces I to Phraates I (c. 247-165 BC) 24
3.1.1 Arsaces I (c. 241-211 BC) 27
3.1.2 Arsaces II (c. 211-191 BC) 28
3.1.3 Phriapatius (c. 191-176 BC) 28
3.1.3.1 Arsaces IV (c. 170-168 BC) 28
3.1.4 Phraates I (c. 168-164 BC) 28
3.2 Phase 2: Expansion of the Parthian Empire: from Mithradates I to Darius of Media Atropatene (c. 165-70 BC) 29
3.2.1 Mithradates I (c. 165/ 164-132 BC) 31
3.2.2 Phraates II (c. 132-21 BC) 32
3.2.3 Inter- regnal Issue (c. 127 BC) 33
3.2.4 Artabanus I (c. 127-123 BC) - Arsaces X (122-121 BC) 33
3.2.5 Mithradates II (c. 121-91 BC) 34
3.2.6 Gotarzes I (c. 91-87 BC) 36
3.2.7 Orodes I (c. 90-80 BC) 36
3.2.8 Unknown King I (c. 80 BC) and Unknown King II (c. 80-70 BC) 36
3.2.9 Sinatruces (c. 93/92-c. 69/ 68 BC) 36
3.2.10 Darius (?) of Media Atropatene (c. 70 BC) 37
3.3 Phase 3: Parthia as a great power: from Phraates III to Vonones II (c. 70 BC-c. 51 AD) 37
3.3.1 Phraates III (c. 70-57 BC) 40
3.3.2 Mithradates III (c. 57-54 BC) 41
3.3.3 Orodes II (c. 57-38 BC) 41
3.3.4 Pacorus I (c. 39 BC) 43
3.3.5 Phraates IV (c. 38-2 BC) 43
3.3.6 Queen Musa and Phraataces, c. 2 BC-4 AD 46
3.3.7 Tiridates I (c. 29-26 BC) 47
3.3.8 Orades III (c. 6 AD) 48
3.3.9 Vonones I (c. 8-12 AD) 48
3.3.10 Artabanus II (c. 10-38 AD) 49
3.3.11 Tiridates II (c. 35-36 AD) 50
3.3.12 Vardanes I (c. 40-45 AD) and Gotarzes II (c. 40-51 AD) 51
3.3.13 Gotarzes II (c. 40-51 AD) 52
3.3.14 Vonones II (c. 51 AD) 52
3.4 Phase 4: Phases of stability - inner turmoil - decline of the Parthian Empire: from Vologases I (c. 51-79 AD) to Artabanus IV (c. 216-224 AD) 52
3.4.1 Vologases I (c. 50/ 51-79 AD) 56
3.4.2 Son of Vardanes (c. 55-58 AD) = Vardanes II (Sellwood) 58
3.4.3 Vologases II (listed by Sellwood, but did not exist) 58
3.4.4 Pacorus II (c. 75-110 AD) 58
3.4.5 Artabanus III (c. 80-80/81 AD) 59
3.4.6 Vologases III (c. 105-147 AD) 60
3.4.7 Osroes I (c. 109-129 AD) 60
3.4.8 Parthamaspates (c. 116 AD) 61
3.4.9 Mithradates IV (c. 129-140 AD) 61
3.4.10 Unknown King III (c. 140 AD) 61
3.4.11 Vologases IV (c. 147-191 AD) 61
3.4.12 Osroes II (c. 190 AD) 62
3.4.13 Vologases V (c. 191-208 AD) 62
3.4.14 Vologases VI (c. 208-228 AD) 63
3.4.15 Artabanus IV (c. 216-224 AD) 63
3.4.16 Tiridates III (c. 216 - 224 AD?) 64
3.5 Ardashir 1 and the newly founded Sasanian Empire 64
3.6 The end of the Parthian Empire - reasons for the downfall 65
4 The structure of the Parthian Empire 71
4.1 The king 72
4.1.1 The ruler's image as an agent of propaganda 73
4.1.2 The king's image - iconography on Parthian coins 73
4.1.3 Investiture of the kings 78
4.1.4 Ancestral cult of the Parthian kings - were kings deified as gods? 82
4.2 The nobility 83
4.3 The Parthian army - standing army - Parthian shot 83
4.3.1 War tactics - light cavalry - cataphracts - elephants 85
4.3.2 Weapons - depictions of weapons -finds of real weapons 89
4.3.3 Parthian legionnaires in the service of Rome - Parthian soldiers on the Rhine? 94
4.4 Administrative structure of the empire 95
4.4.1 The Parthian language and the unification of administrative structures in the empire 96
4.5 Parthian queens and marriage policy 97
4.5.1 Clothing of women/of goddesses shown on coins 98
5 Vassal states and kingdoms under Parthian influence 103
5.1 The kingdom of Osrhoene 103
5.2 The kingdom of Commagene 105
5.3 Gordyene 107
5.4 Adiabene and Media Atropatene 107
5.5 Characene 109
5.6 Elymais 110
5.7 Persis 111
5.8 The kingdom of Hatra 112
6 The Parthian Empire and the peoples of Eurasia 115
6.1 Migration of peoples from China to the eastern border of Parthia - the construction of the Great Wall and its influence as far as the Parthian Empire 116
6.2 Saka 117
6.3 Sarmatians 118
6.4 Graeco-Bactrian kingdom 119
6.5 Indo-Greek kingdom 120
6.6 Indo-Scythian kingdom of the Saka 121
6.7 Indo-Parthian kingdom 121
6.8 Kushan Empire 122
7 Cities and architecture in the Parthian Empire 125
7.1 Structure and architecture of the cities 125
7.1.1 Circular cities 125
7.1.2 Iwan 126
7.1.3 Dome 126
7.1.4 Stucco technique and stucco decoration 127
7.2 Cities in the homeland of the Parthians and in Iran 128
7.2.1 Nisa 128
7.2.2 Mew 136
7.2.3 Herat 137
7.2.4 Shahr- e Qumis (Hecatompylos) 137
7.2.5 Rhagae 138
7.2.6 Ecbatana 138
7.2.7 Susa 138
7.3 Cities in Syria and Mesopotamia 139
7.3.1 Seleucia on the Tigris 140
7.3.2 Ctesiphon 141
7.3.3 Dura-Europos 143
7.3.4 Hatra 146
7.3.5 Palmyra 152
8 Trade and business in the Parthian Empire 158
8.1 Parthian coins and the genealogy of Parthian kings - basic information 160
8.1.1 Cataloguing Parthian coins according to Sellwood and Assar 160
8.1.2 Parthian denominations 166
8.1.3 Value of Parthian money 167
8.1.4 Mints 168
8.1.5 Inscriptions on coins 169
8.2 Mineral resources - mining 175
8.3 Agriculture in Parthia 175
8.4 Wine and trade 176
8.5 Water management - underground qanats in Parthia 177
8.6 Cattle breeding among the Parthians 178
8.7 Parthian markets 179
9 Insights into social life in Parthia 181
9.1 The Parthian language 181
9.2 Parthian literature - an epic with heroes 183
9.2.1 The Hymn of the Pearl 184
9.2.2 The story of Vis and Ramin 185
9.2.3 Shahname - heroic legends 186
9.2.4 Parthian literature and Europe 186
9.3 Equality between men and women - women and law - property 187
9.4 Education 187
9.5 Slaves and prisoners of war 189
9.6 Music of the Parthians 189
9.7 Medical knowledge in Parthian times 191
9.8 Living conditions - income - salary payments 194
9.9 The kitchen of the Parthians: recipe for chicken in Parthian style 194
9.10 Clothing in Parthia: kandys - chlamys - tunic and trousers 196
9.10.1 Kandys 196
9.10.2 Chlamys 196
9.10.3 Parthian tunic and trousers 198
9.10.4 Women: beauty and clothing: chiton/himation/peplos 199
9.11 Astronomy - calendars 203
9.11.1 The Seleucid calendar 205
9.11.2 The Parthian calendar 205
9.11.3 The Zoroastrian calendar 207
9.11.4 Year and month dates on Parthian coins 207
9.11.5 Coins with intercalated years /months (EMBO&bicgrevV;IMOY) 208
9.11.6 Conversion of the Seleucid Era into the Dionysian or Common Era 209
9.11.7 Conversion of the Parthian Era into the Dionysian or Common Era 210
10 Parthian art: art in the Arsacid kingdom 213
10.1 Art finds in Nisa - rhyta - sculptures 215
10.2 Rock reliefs 221
10.3 Stone reliefs 221
10.4 Mural painting - frescoes 231
10.5 Sculptures 233
10.6 Jewellery: torque, earrings, belt buckles and other art 234
10.7 Parthian vessels - bowls - glass 235
11 The Parthian Empire and its religions 254
11.1 An overview of Zoroastrianism and the Avesta 254
11.1.1 The religious concept of Zoroastrianism 256
11.1.2 Magi - priests of the Medes - the wise men from the east 257
11.1.3 Zoroastrianism in Achaemenid times 258
11.1.4 References to the Zoroastrianism of the Parthians 259
11.1.5 Mithra 261
11.1.6 Anahita 263
11.1.7 Nana-Nanaia 264
11.1.8 Ardochscho (= Ashi) 265
11.1.9 Verethragna - Heracles 265
11.1.10 Khvarenah 269
11.1.11 The sacred fire of the Zoroastrians - archaeological finds 270
11.1.12 Fire cult: archaeological evidence in the Parthian Empire 271
11.1.13 Funerals performed by Zoroastrians 272
11.1.14 Burials in Parthian times 274
11.2 Iconography of Parthian coins - references to the Zoroastrian faith, Deities on Parthian coins, Gods in Hellenistic robes - Parthian deities?, Summary: Zoroastrianism among the Parthians 278
11.2.1 Deities on Parthian coins 278
11.2.2 Phase 1: Arsaces I to Phraates I (c. 247-171 BC) 278
11.2.3 Phase 2: Mithradates I to Phraates III (c. 165-70 BC) 281
11.2.4 Phase 3: Phraates III to Vonones II (c. 70 BC-51 AD) 283
11.2.5 Phase 4: Vologases I to Artabanus IV (c. 51 AD to the end of the Parthian Empire in 224 AD) 285
11.2.6 Inscriptions with divine epithets 285
11.2.7 The transformation from the 'Hellenistic Tyche' to the 'Parthian Tyche' 285
11.2.8 Gods in Hellenistic robes - Parthian deities? 287
11.2.9 The 'Parthian Tyche' - which Zoroastrian goddess is meant to be portrayed? 289
11.2.10 Summary: Zoroastrianism among the Parthians 289
11.3 Manichaeism - religion with Parthian origins 289
11.4 Mithraism - Mithras cult 291
11.5 Judaism in Parthia 291
11.6 Christianity in Parthia: the proselytising of the Apostle Thomas 293
