Hardcover
-
PICK UP IN STORECheck Availability at Nearby Stores
Available within 2 business hours
Related collections and offers
Overview
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780691635972 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Princeton University Press |
| Publication date: | 04/19/2016 |
| Series: | Princeton Legacy Library , #182 |
| Pages: | 430 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.20(w) x 9.30(h) x 1.10(d) |
Read an Excerpt
Tragic Pleasures
Aristotle on Plot and Emotion
By Elizabeth S. Belfiore
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
Copyright © 1992 Princeton University PressAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-691-06899-2
CHAPTER 1
The Gorgon at the Feast
When Aristotle defines tragedy as "imitation by means of pity and fear accomplishing the katharsis of such emotions" (Po 6 1449b24–28), he notoriously fails to explain tragic emotion and katharsis Nevertheless, his views on aesthetic emotion are rooted in certain traditional Greek beliefs of which his readers would have been aware For one thing, Aristotle and his fellow Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries B C E shared beliefs about the benefits of fear
It is a commonplace in Greek thought that a certain kind of fear is essential to a well-ordered society
[TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]
There is a place where the terrible is good, and must remain established, an overseer of thoughts
(Aeschylus, Eum 517–19)
This beneficial fear, which preserves law and custom, prevents civil strife, and averts shameless crimes against kin, is the fear of wrongdoing and the respect for parents, gods, and custom that the Greeks called aischune or aidos (shame, respect) Aristotle follows Greek tradition in characterizing aidos in negative terms as an emotion that restrains people from wrongdoing (EN 1128b18), or as "avoidance of blame" (EN Ill6a29) Because this beneficial fear averts evil, it has a function that can be called apotropaic The highly competitive and aggressive Greek male society made this kind of fear especially desirable Particularly at feasts, festivals, and symposia (drinking parties), all of which involved drinking, celebrating, and competition, disruptive strife among friends (philoi) was always a danger Even peaceful, well-ordered symposia included many competitive, aggressive elements contests in words and music, obscene, insulting iambic poetry 2 It is significant that the Greeks used the same word, eris (strife), for competition within a society of friends and for strife among enemies 3 Critias, using a word cognate with eris, calls the poetry of Anacreon a "rouser" or "provoker of symposia" (sumposion erethisma frag 8 Diehl)
One function of tragedy was to provide the kind of beneficial fear that helped prevent strife among friends This function of tragedy would have been particularly clear in the context of the City Dionysia, the festival of the wine god that included dramatic competitions In an expression similar to that of Critias just quoted, Aristophanes refers to the "provokers of choruses" (choron erethismata) that take place in this spring festival of Dionysus The competitive performance of tragedies was preceded by a revel (komos) and followed by a satyr play representing the more shameless aspects of Dionysus This festival of Dionysus was so conducive to the arousal of shameless emotions and to acts of violence that a special assembly was held afterward to consider the violations of good order that had taken place Within this setting, as in Greek society as a whole, tragedy was indeed an "overseer of thoughts," providing a necessary beneficial fear as an antidote to shamelessness
Aristotle's views on tragic fear and tragic katharsis must be understood in the context of these traditional views about beneficial fear and the function of tragedy Tragic fear, according to Aristotle, is aroused not by what is merely painful and destructive, but by deeds of violence among kin (philoi Po 1453b 19–22) Unlike fear of physical pain, fear connected with harm to philoi is beneficial, preventing wrongdoing and encouraging respect for society and religion It averts evil by restraining the shameless emotions that destroy families and societies Aristotle adapts and uses for his own philosophical purposes traditional beliefs about the apotropaic and political functions of fear in casting out and purging the shameless emotions
Because Aristotle's views were influenced by Greek traditional beliefs concerning beneficial, apotropaic fear, it is essential to begin by looking briefly at a few aspects of this tradition. In this chapter, I focus first on one neglected image that can tell us much about Greek views on beneficial fear: that of the Gorgon at the feast. In particular, I examine two literary uses of this theme, one by Pindar (Pythian 12) and one by Aeschylus (Eumenides). I then discuss Plato's views on wine and on beneficial fear in the Laws.
Gorgon and Gorgoneion
In Greek thought, the Gorgon is associated with fear and strife. This is apparent, for example, in "Hesiod," Shield of Heracles. One of the figures represented on the shield is Perseus, who holds the head of the Gorgon Medusa in a bag as he flees in terror from the other Gorgons, who pursue him. From the pursuing Gorgons' belts hang serpents, gnashing their teeth in rage and glaring savagely. Fear (Phobos) is in motion on the heads of the Gorgons (216–37). Fear also occupies the center of the shield. Like a Gorgon, Fear has a glance like fire. On Fear's brow is Strife (Eris), who takes away the wits of men (144–50). Although the Gorgon's glance does not turn people to stone in the Shield, this ability, prominent in other accounts, is surely to be connected with her fear-inspiring qualities, for extreme fear paralyzes.
In the Perseus myth, Perseus must not look at the Gorgon Medusa as he kills her, in order to avoid being turned to stone. Once "tamed," however, the Gorgon and the gorgoneion (the severed head of the monster) have the apotropaic function of averting evil, and as such they are common devices on shields and temples. As an apotropaic gorgoneion, the Gorgon's head retains its ability to produce fear, but this ability is used against the enemies of civilization, to avert harm. After cutting it off, Perseus gives the head of Medusa to Athena, who wears it on her aigis (goatskin shield) to terrify her enemies. The Perseus myth, then, shows how paralyzing, destructive terror can become beneficial when redirected away from oneself and one's enemies.
One use of the gorgoneion, however, is at first sight rather puzzling. In the black-figure drinking cup reproduced in the frontispiece, a central gorgoneion is surrounded by six symposiasts, who drink or hold musical instruments. While the gorgoneion on the shield serves to avert an obvious danger, it is less clear why this terrifying monster should appear at a peaceful symposium. What dangers need to be averted here' Or is the gorgoneion in the cup a purely decorative motif?
We know from ample literary documentation that discord and strife among friends were common at drinking parties Theognis, for example, frequently advises moderation in drinking to guard against this danger. Immoderate drinking, strife, and lack of shame (aidos) are closely connected:
Whoever exceeds the measure in drink, no longer is that man in control of his own tongue or thought, but he speaks lawless things that are shameful to the sober, and he is not ashamed of doing any deed, when he is drunk.
* * *
But you, speak well remaining beside the wine bowl, keeping far from strife with one another
* * *
[for] in this way a symposium is not without grace.
(Theognis 479–82, 493–96)
A symposium was intended to promote peace and friendship. Plutarch writes that the goal of the symposium is "to bring about, by means of pleasure, the increase or production of philia [friendship] among those present." Wine drinking, however, especially among the highly competitive Greek aristocrats, could also lead to unguarded remarks and acts, to insult and injury. The "peace [that] loves the symposium" (Pindar, Nemean 9.48) represents a triumph over disorder, strife, and hubris (violence). Because constant vigilance was needed to create and maintain peace, warnings like those of Theognis are an important part of sympotic poetry. Just as a good symposiarch (master of the symposium) mixes wine and water in the proper proportions, so the poet must mix pleasure and restraint.
The gorgoneion among the symposiasts in the drinking cup can be seen as a visual analogue of Theognis's poetic warnings. It is an apotropaic device against the dangers of shameless "strife with one another," and is used to inspire the beneficial fear of wrongdoing that was particularly needed on just such festive occasions. Just as the gorgoneion on the shield averts the dangers of war, so the gorgoneion in the cup averts the dangers of strife among friends. The combination represented in the cup, of gorgoneion and sympotic revelers, is a good visual symbol of the mixture of wine with water, of pleasure with restraint, that must be maintained at the symposium. Thus, the gorgoneion in the wine cup is a symbol of apotropaic fear used as an antidote to shameless revelry, to create a mixture that is healthful and beneficial to the individual's body and soul, and to the society of which he is a part
Pindar
This interpretation of the symbolism of the gorgoneion at the symposium can help us understand a puzzling literary Gorgon that of Pindar's Pythian 12 15 While this poem celebrates Midas's victory in an aulos contest, most of it concerns the myth of Perseus and Polydektes, the king of the island of Seriphos, who raped Perseus's mother Danae In retaliation, Perseus brings the head of the Gorgon Medusa as his contribution to an eranos (a feast to which everyone contributes) With Athena's help, Perseus first steals the eye shared by the three daughters of Phorcus, the eye that helps him find the Gorgons Facing away from the Gorgon Medusa to avoid being turned to stone, Perseus beheads her and returns to Seriphos, where he uses the head to turn Polydektes and the islanders to stone After recounting this story in Pindar's typical elliptical fashion, the poem describes Athena's invention of the aulos in imitation of the crying of the Gorgon Euryalos Pindar begins the poem by stating that Midas has conquered all of Greece in the art invented by Pallas Athena,
the craft that once
Pallas Athena invented, weaving
the wretched lament of the bold Gorgons,
which Perseus heard with painful labor poured out
from beneath the maidens' unapproachable snaky heads,
when once he destroyed the third part of the sisters,
bringing fete to Seriphos in the sea and to her people
Indeed he blinded the oracular race of Phorcus,
and he made bitter to Polydektes the feast,
and the lasting slavery and compulsory bed of his mother,
stripping off the head of fair-cheeked Medusa,
he, the son of Danae, who, we say, was born
from a shower of gold. But when the maiden [Athena]
had drawn the beloved man out of these toils,
she crafted the many-voiced song of the aulos,
so that she might imitate with instruments
the loud-sounding wail approaching her from the ravenous jaws of
Euryale.
The goddess invented it. But having invented it
for mortal men to have,
she called it the many-headed tune,
the fair-famed wooer to the contests that arouse the people,
a tune that crowds through the thin bronze and the reeds
that grow beside the city, fair in dances, of the Graces
in the holy ground of the nymph of Kaphisos, to be faithful witnesses
of the dancers
If there is any happiness among humans, it does not shine forth
without labor
(Pythtan 12.6–29)
The presence of the Gorgon in this poem has troubled commentators. Why does Pindar stress Athena's invention of beautiful aulos music in imitation of the wails made by a grotesque Gorgon at the death of her sister? Interpretations of the poem have not really explained the specific connection between aulos music and Gorgons. This connection is clearer, however, if we see a parallel between the aulos music and the gorgoneion Athena wears on her aigis. In the Perseus myth, Athena's divine craft allows her to use the terrifying and destructive Gorgon's head for beneficent, apotropaic purposes, by making it the gorgoneion of her aigis. In a similar way, in Pythian 12, Athena uses the ugly, terrifying wail of the Gorgon for beneficent purposes when she imitates it with beautiful aulos music that celebrates victory. In this poem, instead of weaving the gorgoneion into her garment, Athena weaves the wail of the Gorgon into aulos music (7–8).
This parallel between imitative music and the gorgoneion of the aigis is especially meaningful because of the function music serves in Pindar. Aulos music, like the victory ode itself, represents pain and toil in their positive aspects, as victory and good fortune The relationship between happiness, or good fortune, and labor expressed in Pythian 12 28–29 ("If there is any happiness among humans, it does not shine forth without labor") is, as Adolf Kohnken points out in Die Funktion des Mythos bet Pindar, the same as that between aulos music and its function as celebrator of victory through toil (147). Neither victory nor music changes the essential nature of painful toil, but each represents its pleasant and beneficial aspects Pindar writes in Nemean 8, "By means of song, a man makes even labor painless" (49–50). Similarly, in Pythian 12, Athena weaves the threnody of the unapproachable heads (9) into an imitation that is a "song of many heads" (23), and gives it to mortals to serve as a wooer (24) to contests Even though remembered toil is sweet and painless, painful toil is necessary to victory, and the memory of painful toil is essential to the peaceful celebration of victory. In this way, the many-headed song is like the still-powerful and snake-haired, but now beneficial, apotropaic gorgoneion of the aigis.
The Gorgon in Pythian 12, then, represents the painful elements, the mortal limits, that are an essential part of human good fortune, and that must be remembered if we are to enjoy good fortune without hubris and injury. The need to remember mortal limits is particularly great in moments of supreme happiness, such as victory, and at feasts and symposia Both victory and the symposium are especially conducive to shameless, insolent acts and words, to a lack of the moderation necessary for the peaceful enjoyment of human happiness 23 It is significant that Pythian 12 uses sympotic themes and images to help make the point that toil is necessary to human happiness. The Gorgon's head appears in the midst of a communal feast (eranos : 14). While an eranos is not exactly the same as a symposium, the connection is close. In Plato's Symposium 177c5, for example, the speeches given by the symposiasts are said to constitute an eranos for Eros. The aulos itself is associated with the symposium, as is the crown (5). The wail of the Gorgon that is imitated by Athena's aulos music is said to be "poured out" ([TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]. 10), the term used to refer to the libation of wine. This metaphor is especially significant when one considers that Pindar calls his own song a "musical drink amidst the Aeolian breath of the auloi" in Nemean 3.79. The victory ode is like the wine drunk in moderation at a peaceful victory celebration.
Peace loves the symposium. The newly flourishing glory of victory
increases with soft song
The voice becomes bold beside the mixing bowl
Let someone mix it, sweet prophet of the revel,
and distribute in silver cups
the mighty child of the vine
(Nemean 9.48–52)
"Peace" (hesuchia) in Pindar, as Matthew Dickie argues, is "a restraining of the impulses that are induced by prosperity and the good things of life and which, if unchecked, lead to hubris," in the symposium and in life in general. Hesuchia has the function of "enabling men to live harmoniously with each other." Thus, the "peace" that "loves the symposium" is like the restraint and respect (aidos) that prevents hubris and strife with one's fellows in Theognis.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Tragic Pleasures by Elizabeth S. Belfiore. Copyright © 1992 Princeton University Press. Excerpted by permission of PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
Introduction 3
Pt. I The Greek Background 7
Ch. 1 The Gorgon at the Feast 9
Gorgon and Gorgoneion 11
Pindar 14
Eumenides 19
A Medicine to Produce Aidos 30
Pt. II Plot: The Soul of Tragedy 41
Ch. 2 Philia and Tragic Imitation 44
Imitation 45
Representation 48
Production: Tragedy Imitates Nature 53
Similarity 63
Theoria 66
Philia 70
Ch. 3 Plot and Character 83
The Plot-Character Distinction 83
Ethos 92
Ethos as Part of Tragedy 94
The Spoudaioi 100
Problems 103
Plot and Ethos in the Greek Tragedies 107
Ch. 4 Necessity, Probability, and Plausibility 111
Necessity and Probability 111
Plausibility, Plot, and Episode 119
Ch. 5 Parts and Wholes 132
The Parts of the Plot 132
Pathos 134
Peripeteia 141
Recognition 153
Good and Bad Plots 160
Poetics 13: Changes and Characters 161
Poetics 14: Pathos and Recognition 170
Pt. III Pity and Fear 177
Ch. 6 Fear, Pity, and Shame in Aristotle's Philosophy 181
Pity, Fear, and Physical Danger 181
Fear of Disgrace: Aidos and Aischune 189
Aristotle and the Greek Tradition 190
Rhetoric 192
Nicomachean Ethics 193
Eudemian Ethics 199
Aidos, Excellence, and Habituation 203
Kataplexis and Ekplexis 216
Summary 222
Ch. 7 Tragic Emotion 226
Pity and Pear in the Poetics 226
Aesthetic and Real-Life Emotion 238
Flight and Pursuit 238
Tragedy and Rhetoric 246
Pt. IV Katharsis 255
Ch. 8 Katharsis and the Critical Tradition 257
The Definition of Tragedy 257
The Homeopathic Prejudice 260
Homeopathy: Theoretical Problems 266
Homeopathy: The Ancient Evidence 278
Ch. 9 Katharsis in Aristotle's Philosophy 291
Overview 292
Physical Katharsis 300
Katharsis of the Katamenia 300
Medical Katharsis 306
Psychic Katharsis 314
Purity 315
Psychic and Physical Excellence 317
Politics 8 320
Iron and Wood 327
The Platonic Elenchus 331
Ch. 10 Tragic Katharsis 337
Glossary 361
Aristotelian Texts Used 363
Bibliography 365
Index of Passages Cited 381
General Index 405