Unsettled Ground: The Whitman Massacre and Its Shifting Legacy in the American West

Unsettled Ground: The Whitman Massacre and Its Shifting Legacy in the American West

by Cassandra Tate
Unsettled Ground: The Whitman Massacre and Its Shifting Legacy in the American West

Unsettled Ground: The Whitman Massacre and Its Shifting Legacy in the American West

by Cassandra Tate

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Overview

A highly-readable, myth-busting history of the Whitman Massacre—a pivotal event in the history of the American West—that includes the often-missing Native American point of view.

In 1836, Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, devout missionaries from upstate New York, established a Presbyterian mission on Cayuse Indian land near what is now the fashionable wine capital of Walla Walla, Washington. Eleven years later, a group of Cayuses killed the Whitmans and eleven others in what became known as the Whitman Massacre. The attack led to a war of retaliation against the Cayuse; the extension of federal control over the present-day states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming; and martyrdom for the Whitmans. Today, however, the Whitmans are more likely to be demonized as colonizers than revered as heroes. 

In Unsettled Ground, historian and journalist Cassandra Tate takes a fresh look at the personalities, dynamics, disputes, social pressures, and shifting legacy of a pivotal event in the history of the American West.

“[Tate] tells the Cayuse’s side of the story with empathy and clarity . . . a meticulously researched book. The Seattle Times

Product Details

ISBN-13: 9781632172518
Publisher: Blue Star Press
Publication date: 11/17/2020
Sold by: Penguin Random House Publisher Services
Format: eBook
Pages: 340
Sales rank: 588,972
File size: 16 MB
Note: This product may take a few minutes to download.

About the Author

CASSANDRA TATE is a Seattle-based writer and editor. A former journalist, she earned a Ph.D in American history at the University of Washington in 1995. She is the author of Cigarette Wars: The Triumph of "The Little White Slaver." Her work has been published in Smithsonian, Columbia Journalism Review, and other national magazines, and she has contributed more than 200 articles to HistoryLink.org, the online encyclopedia of Washington State history. She is a former Nieman Fellow at Harvard University.

Read an Excerpt

Marcus Whitman was a Protestant missionary who might have been
only a historical footnote had not he, his wife Narcissa, and eleven
others been killed by Cayuse Indians during an attack on his mission
near present-day Walla Walla, Washington, in 1847. Instead, he
became one of the most memorialized figures in the Northwest. A
county, a college, a national forest, half a dozen public schools, and
numerous other enterprises—from an upscale hotel in Walla Walla to
a church in Des Moines—carry his name. The Washington legislature
once considered a measure to rename the iconic Mount Rainier in
his honor. His former mission is a National Historic Site. His statue
stands in the National Statuary Hall in the Capitol Building in
Washington, DC, nine feet of gleaming bronze on a seven-ton block
of polished granite, depicting a muscular, buckskin-clad frontiersman
with a ripped torso and linebacker thighs. He appears to be striding
resolutely along an unbroken trail, one foot higher than the other,
buckskin fringe and kerchief flying, a Bible in one hand, saddlebags
and a scroll in the other. His strong jaw is neatly bearded, his flowing
locks topped by a beaver-skin hat. If the National Statuary Hall had a
hunk contest, he’d be the winner, hands down.

The statue embodies Whitman’s place in the mythology of the
West, not the realities of his life. The only feature that can be verified
as historically accurate are the saddlebags, which were copied from a
pair used by Whitman when he was an itinerate physician in upstate
New York. He left them behind when he was appointed a missionary
in 1835. They ended up a century later in the collections of
the Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia. Sculptor Avard
Fairbanks, who was commissioned to create the statue in 1950, studied
them when he was designing what is otherwise a fanciful depiction
of Marcus Whitman. Even the quotation carved into the granite
pedestal—“My Plans Require Time and Distance”—is a paraphrase
of something Whitman wrote, not his exact words.

The bronze Whitman was unveiled on May 22, 1953. More than
three hundred people attended the ceremonies, including most of
Washington State’s congressional delegation, dozens of other dignitaries,
four distant descendants of the Whitman family, and one dove,
who flew in through a window and fluttered around throughout the
services.1 Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, a graduate of
Whitman College in Walla Walla (and eventual liberal icon), gave
the main dedication speech. He described Whitman as a “dynamic
man of boundless energy” who “brought thousands into the region
beyond the old frontier.” Like most of the other speakers, Douglas
emphasized Whitman’s role in promoting the settlement of the West
by whites, praised his vision and fortitude, called him a martyr, and
deplored the “treachery” of the Indians who killed him. Washington
governor Arthur Langlie was unable to attend but sent word that “it
is a privilege for the citizens of Washington . . . to offer to the people
of the United States this visible monument to one who lived humbly
and died nobly in pursuit of happiness and freedom for his fellow
men.” Langlie said that Whitman had made “tragic sacrifices,” he
had “died a martyr,” and “America honors itself by honoring him.”

The story of the “Whitman Massacre” was a standard part of
the curriculum for schoolchildren throughout the Northwest in the
1950s. I was introduced to it as a sixth-grader in Seattle. It was a
simple tale, with sharply defined heroes and villains and thrilling
touches of mayhem and gore. Marcus and Narcissa Whitman were
brave, noble pioneers who came west to “save” Indians. It was never
clear to me what the Indians were being saved from, or whether they
wanted to be saved, or what they thought about the missionaries,
or why they attacked the mission, but they were not the focus of
the story that we were told. The emphasis was on the white people.
Marcus was strong and handsome; Narcissa was beautiful and saintly;
they were “massacred” by brutal, ungrateful “savages.” I was left with
an indelible image of Narcissa’s long, white throat being slashed by a
knife, sending a river of blood down the front of her billowing gown.

Actually, she was shot, but memory and story and history and
fact have a fluid relationship. Heroes rise and fall to the rhythms of
what scholars call “the politics of memory.” New facts are revealed,
old ones dissected, and stories reshaped (and sometimes forgotten
altogether) as political and social conditions change. The initial
narrative, or “memory,” about the Whitmans—as told by whites—
emphasized their religiosity. It reflected the evangelical values of
dominant voices in the mid-nineteenth century, a time of intense
religious revivalism in the United States. By the end of the century,
after two major economic crises and associated social and political
upheavals, a new version of the story had emerged. Grounded in nostalgia
for an idealized past, it celebrated the Whitmans as heroic pioneers
who had helped a young, expansionist nation realize its dreams
of Manifest Destiny. A competing narrative, one that included the
voices and perspectives of the Cayuse and other indigenous peoples,
began to develop in the late 1960s. Books such as Dee Brown’s Bury
My Heart at Wounded Knee and films such as Soldier Blue and Little
Big Man helped foster public interest in uncovering the history of the
West from Indian points of view.

In the 1980s the National Park Service, which operates the
Whitman Mission National Historic Site, stopped commemorating
the annual anniversary of the attack on the mission; redesigned its
displays to give more attention to the Cayuse and a more balanced
assessment of their interactions with the Whitmans; and phased out
use of the word “massacre” in favor of more neutral language. The
word appeared five times in a four-page brochure distributed by the
Park Service in the late 1950s. In contrast, it was not used at all in
brochures available in 1997, the 150th anniversary of what instead
was called the Tragedy at Waiilatpu. Today the tendency is to see the
Indians, not the missionaries, as the martyrs.

We seem to live in a binary world, where the lines between good
and bad are clearly drawn, without much room for nuance. For more
than a century after their deaths, Marcus and Narcissa Whitman were
venerated by non-Indians as heroic pioneers who had given their lives
to bring Christianity and “civilization” to the West. In more recent
years, however, they’ve been demonized as cultural imperialists and
agents of genocide. They received too much credit in the first instance,
and too much blame in the second. They were complicated, imperfect
people: idealistic but culturally arrogant, courageous but inflexible;
and it was the way they died, more than what they did in life, that
guaranteed them a place in the history of the Northwest.

The Whitmans left comfortable homes in upstate New York
in 1836 to become missionaries in what was then called Oregon
Country—a vast region (consisting of the present-day states of
Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming)
that relatively few Americans had ever seen. They were joined by
another missionary couple, Henry and Eliza Spalding. They reached
their destination after an arduous, seven-month, three-thousandmile
journey. Narcissa and Eliza were the first women known to have
crossed the continent from coast to coast. They traveled much of the
way on horseback, riding sidesaddle.

Whitman established a mission on Cayuse land at a place he
thought was called Waiilatpu (pronounced “way-EE-let-pu”). Henry
Spalding picked a site 120 miles to the northeast, at Lapwai, among
Nez Perce Indians in present-day Idaho. Relations between the
Whitmans and their hosts were initially cordial, but disappointment
and disillusionment built up over time, on both sides. The Whitmans
expected the Cayuse to be eager to convert to Christianity, take up
farming, and live like white people. The Indians were interested in
some aspects of the newcomers’ culture and religion but only to supplement,
not replace, their traditional beliefs and way of life. Longsimmering
tensions erupted in violence on November 29, 1847,
ending with the deaths of the Whitmans and eleven other Americans.

The attack was a pivotal event in Northwest history. One immediate
effect was the passage of a long-delayed bill establishing the
Territory of Oregon, a measure that extended federal authority over
the region. The bill had been stalled for more than two years by a
debate over whether slavery would be permitted in the new territory.
In the end, it was not. Meanwhile, the superintendent of Indian
affairs issued an order declaring that the Cayuse had “forfeited” their
rights to their ancestral homelands. He encouraged settlers to file
claims to Cayuse lands and stipulated that the claims would not be
undercut by any future treaties with the Indians. The “massacre”
became a rallying cry for a two-year war of harassment and retribution
against not only the Cayuse but any Indians suspected of being
allies of or sympathetic to the Cayuse. Finally, in the spring of 1850,
five Cayuses surrendered to the territorial government in Oregon
City and were hanged, after a brief, cursory trial.

The Whitman story was burnished and romanticized for
generations after their deaths, at least in the version told by non-
Indians, but it has now largely faded from public memory. Although
Whitman retains his place in the National Statuary Hall—at least
as of this writing—and his name remains attached to monuments,
plaques, and highway signs from upstate New York to the Northwest
coast, many people don’t know who he was.

This book takes a new look at the Whitmans, the Cayuse, and
the shifting legacy of the events at Waiilatpu. One of my goals is
to slice through the myths, lies, and misconceptions that have built
up around the story over the past 170 years. Narcissa Whitman did
not have her throat sliced, as I once imagined. She was not scalped,
as Richard Neuberger, then a young freelance writer and later a US
senator from Oregon, reported in 1938, in particularly lurid prose
(“Narcissa’s blond scalp eventually dangled against the greasy thigh
of a Cayuse warrior”).3 She was not “shot a dozen times . . . men
whipping her laid-bare back while she was still breathing,” her head
“a cracked melon,” as in a scene conjured by an Idaho writer in
2019.4 Marcus Whitman did not convince the US government to
fend off British claims to the Northwest and thereby “save” Oregon
Country for American settlers. The Cayuse attack on the Whitman
Mission was not unprovoked.

The key figures in this tale were neither heroes nor villains but
simply human beings, caught in a web not entirely of their making.
Their lives played out in ways that profoundly shaped the history of
the Northwest and continue to influence it to this day. What follows
is, to the best of my research and knowledge, an evenhanded account
of what happened and why, and how the narrative changed with each
new generation of storytellers. It’s a complex tale of arrogance, fortitude,
naïveté, and misunderstandings. It can be seen as a singular
American tragedy but also as representative of the tangle of cultural
myopia and conflict that marked each wave of American incursion
into the West.

My dissection of the story begins with the incident that wrapped
Marcus and Narcissa Whitman in a cloak of martyrdom and put
their names in the history books and on the roadside markers: the
November 1847 attack at Waiilatpu.

Table of Contents

Author's Note about Nomenclature ix

Timeline x

Introduction xv

Chapter 1 The Attack 1

Chapter 2 The Imperial Tribe 19

Chapter 3 The Missionaries 45

Chapter 4 Destination Oregon 77

Chapter 5 Early Years at Waiilatpu 105

Chapter 6 Mutual Disillusionment 129

Chapter 7 Explosion of Grief and Violence 151

Chapter 8 Aftermath 173

Chapter 9 Canonization 191

Chapter 10 Reinterpreting the Whitman "Tragedy" 211

Acknowkdgments 233

Notes 237

Selected Bibliography 273

Index 280

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