Table of Contents
1 Material Properties 11.1 Physical Properties 31.2 Crystal Structure 131.3 Crystal Axes and Planes 161.4 Orientation Effects 191.5 Point Defects 231.6 Dislocations 451.7 Electronic Properties of Defects 53
Tables 58References 64Problems 67
2 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility 69
2.1 Unitary Diagrams 702.2 Binary Diagrams 702.3 Solid Solubility 882.4 Ternary Diagram 91
References 99Problem 100
3 Crystal Growth and Doping 102
3.1 Starting Growth and Doping 102
3.2 Growth from the Melt 106
3.3 Considerations for Proper Crystal Growth 113
3.4 Doping in the Melt 120
3.5 Semi-Insulating Gallium Arsenide 129
3.6 Properties of Melt-Grown Crystals 132
3.7 Solution Growth 134
3.8 Zone Processes 135
3.9 Properties of Zone-Processed Crystals 141
Tables 142References 145Problems 149
4 Diffusion 150
4.1 The Nature of Diffusion 1514.2 Diffusion in a Concentration Gradient 1544.3 The Diffusion Equation 1714.4 Impurity Behavior: Silicon 1834.5 Impurity Behavior: Gallium Arsenide 1974.6 Diffusion Systems 2024.7 Diffusion Systems for Silicon 2094.8 Special Problems in Silicon Diffusion 2174.9 Diffusion Systems for Gallium Arsenide 2244.10 Evaluation Techniques for Diffused Layers 235
Tables 246References 251Problems 256
5 Epitaxy 258
5.1 General Considerations 2615.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 2735.3 Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 2835.4 VPE Processes for Silicon 2965.5 VPE Processes for Gallium Arsenide 3135.6 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy 3305.7 LPE Systems 3405.8 Heteroepitaxy 3455.9 Evaluation of Epitaxial Layers 348
Tables 356References 358Problems 366
6 Ion Implantation 368
6.1 Penetration Range 3706.2 Implantation Damage 3896.3 Annealing 3936.4 Ion Implantation Systems 4076.5 Process Considerations 4166.6 High-Energy Implants 4306.7 High-Current Implants 4316.8 Application to Silicon 4326.9 Application to Gallium Arsenide 437
Tables 442References 443Problems 449
7 Native Films 451
7.1 Thermal Oxidation of Silicon 4527.2 Thermal Nitridation of Silicon 4837.3 Thermal Oxidation of Gallium Arsenide 4857.4 Anodic Oxidation 4877.5 Plasma Processes 4957.6 Evaluation of Native Films 498
Tables 500References 503Problems 508
8 Deposited Films 510
8.1 Film Deposition Methods 5118.2 Film Characteristics 5228.3 Films for Protection and Masking 5278.4 Films for Doping 5468.5 Films for Interconnections 5488.6 Films for Ohmic Contacts 5568.7 Films for Schottky Diodes 570
Tables 576References 578
9 Etching and Cleaning 587
9.1 Wet Chemical Etching 5899.2 Dry Physical Etching 6139.3 Dry Chemical Etching 6209.4 Reactive Ion Etching 6259.5 Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Techniques 6369.6 Etching-Induced Damage 6389.7 Cleaning 639
Tables 646References 654Problems 661
10 Lithographic Processes 662
10.1 Photoreactive Materials 66410.2 Pattern Generation and Mask-Making 66910.3 Pattern Transfer 67410.4 Advanced Techniques 68510.5 Problem Areas 696
11 Device and Circuit Fabrication 704
11.1 Isolation 70511.2 Self-Alignment 71211.3 Local Oxidation 71411.4 Planarization 72111.5 Metallization 72611.6 Gettering 72811.7 Mos-Based Silicon Microcircuits 73011.8 BJT-Based Silicon Microcircuits 74911.9 Gallium Arsenide Microcircuits 778
Tables 790References 790
Appendix The Mathematics of Diffusion 801
A.1 Solutions for a Constant Diffusion Coefficient 802A.2 Solution for a Time-Dependent Diffusion Coefficient 811A.3 Solution for Concentration-Dependent Diffusion Coefficients 813A.4 Determination of the Diffusion Constant 815
References 817Index 819