Wireless Positioning Techniques and Applications / Edition 2

by Alan Bensky

Overview

This expanded second edition of an Artech House bestseller presents comprehensive coverage of wireless positioning principles and technologies for engineers involved in using or developing wireless location applications. This book explains the basics of GPS and terrestrial navigation and demonstrates the applications of fundamental distance measuring principles. This edition includes updated and expanded chapters on satellite navigation, OFDM, TDOA location facilities in 3GPP LTE specifications, carrier phase measurements and differential GPS, wireless sensor networks, MIMO positioning, inertial navigation, and data fusion. Contents: Basic Principles and Applications; Spread Spectrum and OFDM; Multicarrier Phase of Arrival; Received Signal Strength; Time of Arrival and Time Difference of Arrival; Angle of Arrival; Satellite Positioning; Cellular Networks; Short-Range Wireless Networks and RFID; Ultrawideband (UWB); Complementary and Developing Technologies.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781608079513
Publisher:	Artech House, Incorporated
Publication date:	02/29/2016
Pages:	450
Product dimensions:	7.20(w) x 10.20(h) x 1.20(d)

Table of Contents

Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Fundamentals and Terms 1

1.1.1 Basic Measurements 2

1.1.2 Terms 3

1.2 Applications 4

1.2.1 Cellular Networks 5

1.2.2 Person and Asset Tracking 5

1.2.3 Wireless Network Security 6

1.2.4 Location-Based Advertising 6

1.2.5 Location Services for Vehicles and Traffic 6

1.2.6 New and Developing Wireless Location Applications and Technologies 6

1.3 Overview of Distance Measurement and Location Methods 7

1.4 Organization of the Book 11

References 12

Chapter 2 Basic Principles and Applications 13

2.1 Signal Parameters 14

2.1.1 Time Resolution 14

2.1.2 Pulse Width and Duty Cycle 15

2.1.3 Bandwidth 15

2.1.4 Noise 18

2.1.5 Pulse Compression 20

2.2 Basics of Location 27

2.2.1 Rho-Theta 27

2.2.2 Theta-Theta or AOA 28

2.2.3 Rho-Rho or TOA 28

2.2.4 TDOA and Hyperbolic Curves 30

2.3 Errors and Accuracy Measures and Error Estimation 32

2.3.1 Statistical Measures of Accuracy 33

2.3.2 Cramer-Rao Lower Bound (CRLB) 34

2.4 Navigation Systems 37

2.4.1 DME 38

2.4.2 VOR 42

2.4.3 Loran-C 45

2.4.4 eLoran 50

2.4.5 DECCA 51

2.4.6 OMEGA 52

2.4.7 Transit 53

2.5 Conclusion 54

References 54

Chapter 3 Spread Spectrum and OFDM 57

3.1 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 58

3.1.1 Transmitter and Receiver Configurations for DSSS 58

3.1.2 DSSS Waveforms 60

3.1.3 Despreading and Correlation 61

3.1.4 Code Sequence Generation 63

3.1.5 Synchronization 65

3.1.6 Velocity Estimation 66

3.2 Acquisition 67

3.2.1 Code Acquisition 68

3.2.2 Carrier Acquisition 73

3.2.3 Code Rate Matching 74

3.2.4 Effect of Data Modulation on Acquisition 75

3.2.5 Radiometric Detection 75

3.3 Tracking 76

3.3.1 Carrier Tracking 76

3.3.2 Code Tracking 77

3.4 Measurement of Elapsed Time 81

3.4.1 One-Way Systems 81

3.4.2 Two-Way Systems 82

3.4.3 The Time Measurement Process 83

3.4.4 High-Resolution Elapsed Time-Measuring Receiver 85

3.4.5 Duplex and Half-Duplex Two-Way Ranging Examples 87

3.4.6 Sequence Length and Chip Period 91

3.5 Propagation Time Resolution 92

3.5.1 Tracking Accuracy and Noise 92

3.5.2 Multipath 94

3.5.3 Increased Range Resolution Using Carrier Phase 95

3.6 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 96

3.7 OFDM Synchronization 99

3.7.1 Correlation 99

3.7.2 802.11 Synchronization 101

3.8 LTE Principle of Operation 103

3.8.1 LTE Synchronization 105

3.8.2 LTE Positioning 106

3.9 Conclusion 111

References 111

Chapter 4 Multicarrier Phase of Arrival 113

4.1 Principle of Multicarrier Phase Measurement 113

4.2 Phase Slope Method 114

4.3 Phase Error Versus Signal-to-Noise Ratio 118

4.4 Estimation of Distance Variance Versus SNR 121

4.5 Multipath 124

4.6 System Implementation 129

4.6.1 Phase Difference Measurements and Analogy to TDOA 131

4.6.2 Phase of Arrival in Passive Reflection Link 132

4.7 OFDM 134

4.7.1 The Basics of OFDM 134

4.7.2 OFDM Distance Measurement 137

4.7.3 Location Based on OFDM Distance Measurement 141

4.7.4 Resolution of OFDM Distance Measurement 143

4.8 Conclusion 144

References 145

Chapter 5 Received Signal Strength 147

5.1 Advantages and Problems in RSS Location 147

5.2 Propagation Laws 148

5.2.1 Free Space 148

5.2.2 Open Field 149

5.2.3 Logarithmic Approximation 150

5.2.4 Randomizing Term X 151

5.2.5 Outdoor Path Loss Versus Distance 152

5.2.6 Finding Range from Received Signal Strength 153

5.3 RSS Location Methods 154

5.3.1 RSS Location from Range Estimations 154

5.3.2 RSS Location Based on Database Comparison 155

5.4 Conclusion 166

References 167

Chapter 6 Time of Arrival and Time Difference of Arrival 169

6.1 Time Transfer 170

6.1.1 Time Transfer Basics 170

6.1.2 Calibration Constants 172

6.1.3 Range Uncertainty 173

6.1.4 Uses of Two-Way Time Transfer 179

6.2 TOA Methods of Location 180

6.2.1 Overdetermined TOA Equation Solution 181

6.2.2 TOA Method in GPS Positioning 185

6.3 TDOA 189

6.3.1 TDOA Measurement Techniques 189

6.3.2 Multilateral and Unilateral Topologies for TDOA 192

6.3.3 TDOA Geometric Model 193

6.3.4 TDOA Examples 195

6.4 Performance Impairment 199

6.4.1 Uncertainties in Data Measurement 199

6.4.2 Random Noise 200

6.4.3 Dilution of Precision (DOP) 203

6.4.4 Multipath 206

6.4.5 Cochannel Interference 208

6.5 Conclusion 209

References 210

Chapter 7 Angle of Arrival 213

7.1 Triangulation 213

7.2 Antenna Performance Terms and Definitions 215

7.3 Finding Direction from Antenna Patterns 217

7.4 Direction-Finding Methods 222

7.4.1 Amplitude Comparison 222

7.4.2 Phase Interferometer 224

7.5 Electronically Steerable Beam Antennas 231

7.6 ESPAR Antenna Array 238

7.7 Super-Resolution 244

7.8 Direction Finding with MIMO 248

7.9 Conclusion 249

References 249

Chapter 8 Satellite Positioning 251

8.1 GPS Basics 251

8.2 GPS Modernization 257

8.3 Global Navigation Satellite Systems 258

8.4 GNSS Position Estimation 260

8.5 Differential GNSS 264

8.6 Carrier Phase Positioning 266

8.6.1 Single Differencing 267

8.6.2 Double Differencing 268

8.7 GNSS Data Output Format 270

8.8 Conclusion 271

References 272

Chapter 9 Cellular Networks 275

9.1 Cellular Location-Based Services 275

9.2 Categories of Location Systems 276

9.3 E911 Call Location Requirements 278

9.4 Cellular Network Fundamentals 278

9.4.1 GSM Transmissions 280

9.4.2 CDMA 281

9.4.3 UMTS 282

9.5 Cell ID 282

9.6 GPS Cellular Positioning 284

9.7 Location Technologies Using TDOA 285

9.7.1 Enhanced Observed Time Differences (E-OTD) 286

9.7.2 Observed Time Difference of Arrival (OTDOA) 287

9.7.3 Uplink Time Difference of Arrival (U-TDOA) 288

9.8 Angle of Arrival (AOA) 289

9.9 Received Signal Strength and Pattern Recognition 289

9.10 Problems and Solutions in Cellular Network Positioning 290

9.10.1 Narrowband Networks 290

9.10.2 CDMA 290

9.10.3 GSM 290

9.11 LTE Positioning 291

9.12 Accuracy Factors 293

9.13 Conclusion 294

References 294

Chapter 10 Short-Range Wireless Networks and RFID 297

10.1 WLAN/Wi-Fi 298

10.1.1 TOA 299

10.1.2 TDOA Methods for WLAN Location 307

10.1.3 Fingerprinting 309

10.2 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) 311

10.2.1 Bluetooth 312

10.2.2 ZigBee 317

10.2.3 Alternate Low-Rate WPAN Physical Layer IEEE 802.15.4a 319

10.2.4 ECMA-368 Standard 321

10.3 RFID 322

10.3.1 Proximity Location 322

10.3.2 UHF RFID with Reference Tags 323

10.3.3 RFID Location with TOF and AOA 325

10.3.4 Distance Bounding for Security 325

10.4 Conclusion 327

References 327

Chapter 11 Ultrawideband (UWB) 331

11.1 Telecommunication Authority Regulations 331

11.1.1 FCC Regulations 331

11.1.2 UWB in the European Community 333

11.2 UWB Implementation 334

11.2.1 Impulse Radio UWB 334

11.2.2 OFDM 339

11.3 IEEE 802.15.4a for Ranging 342

11.3.1 Physical Layer Characteristics and Synchronization 342

11.3.2 Ranging Protocol 346

11.4 Dealing with Multipath and Non-Line-of-Sight 350

11.4.1 Multipath 350

11.4.2 Non-Line-of-Sight 351

11.5 Conclusion 353

References 353

Chapter 12 Complementary and Developing Technologies 355

12.1 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) 355

12.2 Kalman Filter 360

12.2.1 Basic Kalman Filter 360

12.2.2 Extended Kalman Filter 365

12.3 Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO) 367

12.3.1 MIMO Principles 367

12.3.2 MIMO Positioning 370

12.4 Data Fusion 374

12.4.1 Hybrid Systems 374

12.4.2 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 378

12.4.3 Data Fusion with INS 379

12.5 Near-Field Positioning 383

12.6 Conclusion 384

References 385

Acronyms and Abbreviations 387

About the Author 393

Index 395